fin keel yacht

Sailboat Keel Types Compared: Pros and Cons of 13 Types

There are various keel designs, each with specific advantages and disadvantages. For instance, full keels provide better stability and tracking, making them a popular choice for long-distance cruisers. On the other hand, fin keels enable sharper turns and quicker reactions, which appeal to racers and those seeking a more nimble experience. Choosing the right keel type for your sailboat depends on your sailing preferences, cruising goals, and intended destinations.

A sailboat's keel plays a significant role in its overall stability, performance, and comfort. It helps you maintain balance, steer your boat, and improve your boat's sailing efficiency. Sailboat keel types impact not only the performance and handling of your sailboat but also its suitability for different sailing conditions.

Let's compare 13 different keel types, and discuss their strengths and weaknesses, as well as their practical applications.

• The keel types that are known for their comfort and seaworthiness are full keel, bilge keel, wing keel, Scheel keel, and fixed keel.
• The best keel types for speed are canting keel, bulb keel, and wing keel.
• For improved maneuverability and agility , the best keel types are swing keel, centerboard keel, and daggerboard keel.
• The keel types that provide the most stability are bulb keel, fixed keel, and fin keel.

On this page:

Pros and cons of 13 types of keel, canting keel, centreboard, daggerboard, lifting keel, scheel keel.

If you're curious what these keel types look like, here's our illustrated guide on sailboat keels .

Full-length keel : Full-length keels run the entire length of the boat. They offer excellent stability and are popular among offshore cruisers who require a solid, rugged sailboat. Full keeled boats are better suited for heavy weather, but they may be slower due to their weight and drag.

Fin keel : Fin keels are thinner and generally used for racing, as they provide a good balance between speed and stability. Their reduced drag means faster speeds but might be less stable compared to full-length keels in heavy seas.

Bulb keel : A bulb keel features a heavy, rounded weight at the bottom of the fin keel. This extra weight lowers the boat's center of gravity and provides additional stability without significantly increasing drag.

Canting keel : A canting keel is a high-performance feature that can pivot from side to side, allowing the boat to maintain optimal stability while heeling over on its side to maximize speed in racing scenarios.

Centerboard : This keel type features a retractable board that can be lowered for sailing upwind and raised in shallow waters. Centerboards are often found on smaller boats and dinghies.

Swing keel : Swing keels operate on a hinge, swinging up and down to adjust the boat's draft. They balance the benefits of a larger keel with the convenience of a shallow draft for docking and beaching.

Wing keel : Wing keels are similar to bulb keels but with two small wings on either side of the bulb. These wings increase the effective surface area, offering better stability and shallower draft capabilities, ideal for coastal cruising.

Bilge keel : Bilge keels are found on boats with two smaller keels on either side of the hull rather than a single central keel. This design is most commonly used in tidal waters and on small fishing boats, allowing the boat to sit upright when grounded during low tide.

Daggerboard : Similar to a centerboard, a daggerboard is a non-weighted, removable board that slides vertically through a slot in the hull. This type is also commonly seen on dinghies and smaller sailboats.

Fixed keel : Fixed keel provides good stability and is less prone to damage than other keel types. However, it can limit the boat's ability to sail in shallow waters and may make it more difficult to trailer the boat.

Lifting keel : A lifting keel can be raised or lowered, providing both the benefits of a deep keel for improved stability and performance and a shallow draft for easier access to shallow waters and docking.

T-keel : T-keels provide improved stability and upwind performance, which can be desirable for sailors. However, their larger draft and vulnerability to grounding should be considered when deciding if this keel type is the right choice for your sailing adventures.

Scheel keel : This offers unique benefits, and it could be an excellent choice for your sailboat if you prioritize stability, shallow draft, and efficient upwind sailing. However, you should consider the potential drawbacks, such as decreased speed and increased maintenance, before making a final decision.

Pros of full keel

A full keel has several advantages that make it an appealing option for many sailors. First and foremost, it offers exceptional stability , which is particularly important when you're out at sea for extended periods. With a full keel, your sailboat can better resist the forces acting on the sails, ensuring a smoother and safer journey.

Another significant benefit is the durability of a full keel. Because of the large surface area and the way it's constructed, full keels tend to be very strong and resilient, making them perfect for long-distance cruising. Additionally, this type of keel provides excellent tracking , helping your sailboat stay on course in various conditions.

Lastly, full keel sailboats are less likely to be damaged when grounding , as the keel's large surface area allows for better weight distribution. This characteristic can be especially useful when navigating shallow waters or exploring uncharted territories.

Cons of full keel

Despite the many advantages of a full keel, it also has some drawbacks. One of the most noticeable disadvantages is its effect on sailboat performance. Full keels tend to be less maneuverable than other keel types, which can be a drawback in tight situations or when you need to make quick adjustments during sailing.

Another downside is the increased wetted surface area, which leads to higher drag and slower speeds when compared to other keel types, such as fin keels. This reduced efficiency can be a concern, especially for those who prioritize performance and speed on their sailing journeys.

Additionally, full keel sailboats may be more challenging to maneuver in tight spaces , such as crowded marinas, due to their reduced maneuverability and larger turning radius. This can make docking and mooring more complex, particularly for inexperienced sailors.

Pros of fin keel

Fin keels hold several advantages for sailors. First, they offer improved performance. A fin keel's streamlined shape cuts through the water more efficiently, allowing sailboats to reach higher speeds with less drag. Moreover, fin keels generally provide better upwind performance than other keel types.

Their maneuverability is another significant benefit. Fin keels allow sailboats to turn more quickly and easily, making them nimble in tight spaces and responsive to the helm. Additionally, they typically have a reduced draft, meaning they can navigate shallow waters more effectively than boats with deeper keels.

Lastly, fin keels are popular for their ease of maintenance . Since they're typically bolted onto the hull, routine inspections and potential repairs are relatively straightforward and accessible.

Cons of fin keel

Despite the benefits, there are a few drawbacks to consider when it comes to fin keels. First, they tend to have less stability than full or bilge keels. Their slender design and reduced weight can make them more prone to sudden heeling, which some sailors may find uncomfortable or disconcerting.

Another potential issue is structural vulnerability . If a fin keel strikes a submerged obstacle, such as a rock or shipping container, it may suffer damage or even become dislodged, which could pose a significant risk to the integrity of the boat. This stands in contrast to more robust full keels, which can better absorb the impact of groundings or collisions.

Lastly, fin keels are sometimes considered less comfortable for cruising sailors. Due to their design, boats with fin keels can experience more motion (both side-to-side and up and down) in rough seas, potentially leading to discomfort or seasickness for the crew.

A bulb keel is a type of sailboat keel that features a streamlined fin with a bulb-shaped weight at the bottom. This design aims to improve the boat's performance, especially in racing conditions. In this section, we will explore the pros and cons of bulb keels.

Pros of bulb keel

Stability : The main advantage of a bulb keel is its ability to provide excellent stability. The bulb's weight is concentrated at its lowest point, which lowers the center of gravity of your sailboat. This design helps keep the boat upright and stable when sailing, especially in strong winds.

Performance : Bulb keels contribute to a sailboat's overall performance by reducing drag. The streamlined shape of the fin and the placement of the bulbous weight make it easier for your boat to glide through the water, increasing your overall speed and agility when sailing.

Upwind sailing : A bulb keel allows your sailboat to sail more effectively upwind. By reducing leeway and maintaining a consistent course, your boat can navigate better through a variety of wind conditions.

Cons of bulb keel

Maintenance : One potential downside of a bulb keel is the increased maintenance required. The bulbs can be more prone to collecting marine growth, which may necessitate regular cleaning and antifouling treatments to maintain peak performance.

Depth : Bulb keels, due to their design, have a deeper draft than other keel types. This means that your sailboat might struggle in shallow waters or require extra diligence while sailing in areas with submerged obstacles or coral reefs.

Pros of canting keel

Canting keels are a popular choice among performance-oriented sailors due to their remarkable benefits in several areas. They offer increased stability and enhanced performance , especially when sailing upwind. This type of keel allows the boat to maintain a more upright position when healing, reducing drag and improving your overall speed and efficiency on the water.

Moreover, canting keels are adjustable , which allows you to alter the keel angle depending on the wind conditions and desired performance. This flexibility can make a significant difference in how your boat performs on the water. Another advantage of canting keels is their improved handling characteristics , which make them easier to maneuver in various conditions.

Cons of canting keel

Despite the many advantages, there are also some notable drawbacks to using a canting keel. One significant downside is their complexity and cost . These keels often require sophisticated engineering and systems, which can drive up the overall price of your boat and may require more maintenance and repairs over time.

Another potential issue with canting keels is their increased vulnerability to grounding . Since the keel can extend deeper beneath the boat, there is a higher risk of hitting obstacles or running aground, especially in shallow waters or unknown territories.

Lastly, canting keels can contribute to changes in the boat's handling characteristics , particularly when sailing downwind. While their adjustability may enhance upwind performance, it may also lead to instability and increased difficulty controlling your boat in heavy downwind conditions.

Pros of the centerboard

A centerboard is a movable keel that can be retracted or lowered to provide stability and balance to your sailboat. Here are some benefits you can enjoy with a centerboard:

• Shallow draft : With a centerboard, you can easily navigate shallow waters and get closer to shore. This is particularly useful for exploring coves, anchorages, and beaching your boat.
• Adjustable performance : By adjusting the position of the centerboard, you can fine-tune your sailboat's performance based on the current sailing conditions.
• Easier transport and storage : Retractable centerboards make it simple to trailer your sailboat and store it in tight spaces without worrying about a fixed keel's height or depth.
• Grounding protection : In case of accidental grounding, a centerboard can help minimize potential damage by absorbing the impact instead of transferring it to your boat's hull.

If you're torn between centerboard, swing, and fixed keels , here's our in-depth article on their pros and cons.

Cons of the centerboard

Despite the advantages, centerboards also come with some drawbacks that you should consider:

• Less stability : When compared to fixed keels, centerboards offer less stability, especially for larger sailboats. This may lead to reduced performance in rough waters or strong winds.
• Maintenance : Centerboards require regular maintenance to ensure they remain functional and efficient. This may include cleaning, lubricating, and inspecting the related components.
• Complexity : The moving parts and additional mechanisms in a centerboard system can be more complex than a fixed keel, potentially increasing the likelihood of mechanical issues.
• Reduced interior space : Depending on your sailboat's design, the presence of a centerboard trunk may limit the available interior space, impacting your comfort and storage options.

The swing keel is a type of sailboat keel that essentially pivots on a hinge or bolt, allowing the keel to swing up or down as needed. This feature grants a sailboat with a swing keel the ability to adjust its performance and stability depending on the sailing conditions or water depth. Let's discuss the pros and cons of swing keels in detail.

Pros of swing keel

Versatility : The swing keel's ability to pivot grants your sailboat the capability to navigate shallow waters and safely beach your boat without getting stuck. This is advantageous for exploring coastal areas and coves.

Adjustability : Swing keels provide the opportunity for better control over your boat's performance. By adjusting the keel angle, you can find the right balance of stability and speed tailored to your sailing experience and conditions.

Trailerable : A sailboat with a swing keel can be easily trailered and transported, as the keel can be retracted, reducing the boat's weight, draft, and overall dimensions.

Ease of maintenance : Swing keels are often easier to maintain and repair, as they can be retracted for inspection or servicing without having to haul out the entire boat.

Cons of swing keel

Reduced performance : A trade-off with the swing keel's versatility is that it generally doesn't offer the same level of performance as a fixed keel sailboat, especially when it comes to upwind ability or pointing.

Additional complexity : The presence of a pivot point and moving parts can make swing keels more prone to wear or damage. This can lead to additional maintenance requirements or repairs if not properly cared for.

Increased weight : Given the swing keel's construction, materials, and additional hardware, it can add extra weight to your boat compared to other keel types. This may affect your boat's overall performance.

Potential leaks : Like any keel with moveable parts, a swing keel can introduce the risk of water ingress if the seals or hull are not properly maintained.

Pros of wing keel

The wing keel is an innovative design that has gained popularity among sailors due to its unique features and benefits. One of the main advantages of this keel type is its shallow draft . The horizontal wing allows the keel to have a larger surface area without going as deep as a fin keel of the same size, making it ideal for sailboats navigating shallow waters.

Another benefit of the wing keel is its relatively good upwind performance . While not as efficient as a fin keel, it still performs well in many sailing conditions, offering a great balance between maneuverability and stability.

The ease of grounding and recovery is another plus for the wing keel. Since it has a relatively shallow draft, you are less likely to hit the seabed when navigating shallow waters. Furthermore, if the boat does become grounded, the wing keel design makes it easier to refloat.

Cons of wing keel

However, the wing keel is not without its drawbacks. The most notable disadvantage of this design is its reduced pointing ability compared to fin keels. The wing keel may struggle to sail as close to the wind as a similarly-sized sailboat with a fin keel, which can be a disadvantage when racing or sailing in tight spaces.

A wing keel sailboat may also be prone to increased leeway due to the lower depth and surface area of the keel. This can make the boat more difficult to control in strong winds or challenging sea conditions.

Another issue to consider is the maintenance and cleaning of the wing keel. Due to the horizontal wings, it may be harder to access and clean the keel properly, leading to increased fouling or potential damage.

Bilge keels are an interesting combination of two smaller keels mounted on either side of the hull, which provide stability and added performance benefits in certain conditions. In this section, we will explore the pros and cons of bilge keels on sailboats.

Pros of bilge keel

• Shallow draft : Bilge keels allow you to access shallow water areas, expanding your cruising options. The dual keel design keeps your boat stable in shallow waters, making it ideal for exploring remote destinations, such as tidal estuaries or hidden coves.
• Low maintenance : Compared to other keel types like fin keels or lifting keels, bilge keels require less maintenance. They are sturdy and simpler to maintain due to their fixed position.
• Self-righting : With bilge keels, your sailboat has a natural ability to self-right after a capsize. Their wide footprint provides additional support and stability, reducing the chances of a full capsize.
• Beaching ability : Bilge keel boats can safely dry out on the beach or tidal flats without tipping, making it easier for you to conduct maintenance or give the hull a thorough clean.

Cons of bilge keel

• Reduced performance : While bilge keels offer stability and shallow draft benefits, they can reduce your sailboat's performance in certain conditions. They create more drag, causing your boat to be slower and less agile than boats with fin keels.
• Heeling angle limitations : Due to their wide footprint, bilge keel sailboats experience a larger heeling angle, which could make sailing at high speeds or in strong winds challenging.
• Less upright stability : Bilge keel boats may be less stable when sailing in extreme conditions, as the dual keel design provides less leverage for the boat to lean on compared to a deep fin keel.

Pros of daggerboard

A daggerboard can enhance your sailing experience in several ways. First and foremost, it provides improved maneuverability . With a daggerboard, you can navigate through shallow waters more easily, making it ideal for exploring coastal areas and inland waterways.

Another advantage is the ease of maintenance . Daggerboards are simpler in design compared to other keel types, making them easier to maintain and repair. Additionally, they are easily retractable, allowing you to adjust the draft of your sailboat depending on the depth of the water, avoiding running aground or hitting underwater obstacles.

Daggerboards are also typically lighter in weight compared to other keel types, which contributes to better sailing performance, particularly in light wind conditions. It is also worth noting that their simple design often results in lower production costs for boat manufacturers, resulting in more affordable options for you, the buyer.

Finally, daggerboards are popular on trailer sailers due to their retractable nature, making it more convenient for you to transport your sailboat on a trailer over land when necessary.

Cons of daggerboard

Despite the various advantages, there are a few downsides to consider when it comes to daggerboards. One notable drawback is their limited righting moment . This means that sailboats with a daggerboard are generally less stable and more prone to heeling or even capsizing in rough conditions. If you frequently sail in choppy waters, this could be a significant concern for your safety.

Another downside is the space occupied by the daggerboard case inside the cabin of the boat. This can reduce the available living space, especially on smaller sailboats. In addition, daggerboards can be noisier than other keel types when sailing due to water noise around the daggerboard case.

Lastly, the lack of keel protection in boats with daggerboards makes them more vulnerable to damage by underwater obstacles. While the retractability feature might mitigate this risk somewhat, it is still essential for you to remain cautious when navigating shallow and uncharted waters.

Pros of fixed keel

A fixed keel offers numerous advantages that can make your sailing experience more enjoyable. First, fixed keels provide better stability as they have a lower center of gravity, resulting in a more comfortable ride. This is particularly beneficial when sailing in rough weather or choppy seas.

Moreover, fixed keels offer improved upwind performance compared to other keel types. The deeper draft allows the boat to generate more lift and point higher into the wind, making it faster and more efficient when sailing upwind. Additionally, these keels are low-maintenance since there are fewer moving parts to wear out or require replacement.

Lastly, fixed keel boats tend to have better handling under power . They can make precise turns and handle well in reverse, allowing for easier maneuvering in tight spaces and marinas.

Cons of fixed keel

Despite their advantages, fixed keels also come with some drawbacks. One of the main concerns is their depth , which limits the boat's ability to access shallow waters. This may restrict your sailing options, especially near shorelines or in tidal areas.

Additionally, fixed keel boats can be less maneuverable at slower speeds compared to boats with swing keels or centerboards. This can make tight turns more challenging, especially in crowded harbors or narrow waterways.

Finally, fixed keel boats are generally heavier and harder to trailer , as they require a higher towing capacity and specially designed trailers to accommodate the boat's deeper draft. This added weight can make transportation more difficult and lead to higher fuel costs for road transportation.

Pros of lifting keel

A lifting keel is a type of keel that can be raised or lowered, allowing you to adjust the depth and balance of your sailboat. When properly utilized, a lifting keel can provide a number of benefits to enhance your sailing experience.

• Versatility : A lifting keel allows you to sail in shallow waters as well as access ports and harbors with limited depth. This is especially useful for exploring coastal areas and navigating tidal waters.
• Improved performance : By adjusting the depth of the keel, you can optimize your boat's performance in various sailing conditions. This can result in better speed, stability, and upwind performance.
• Easier transportation : With the ability to raise the keel, transporting your sailboat on a trailer becomes more manageable as it reduces the overall draft and height of your boat.

If you're choosing between swing or lifting keel , here's our more detailed guide on their pros and cons.

Cons of lifting keel

While a lifting keel offers several advantages, it is essential to be aware of some potential drawbacks before choosing this type of keel for your sailboat.

• Maintenance and complexity : Lifting keels typically require more maintenance due to the moving parts involved. Extra care is needed to inspect and maintain the keel's lifting mechanism, which might include a winch, cable, or hydraulic system.
• Added weight : The lifting mechanism adds weight to your boat, which can have negative effects on performance and fuel efficiency.
• Potential weaknesses : The structural integrity of a boat with a lifting keel can be compromised if it is not designed and engineered properly. This could lead to stress points or even failure in extreme situations.

Pros of T-keel

T-keel is a unique design that has its advantages to consider. First, it offers improved stability . With a heavier weight concentrated at the bottom of the keel, your sailboat will resist heeling, maintaining a more upright position in strong winds. This added stability allows for better control and a smoother ride when sailing.

Another pro of the T-keel is its powerful upwind performance . The shape and design of this keel allow for a low center of gravity while minimizing drag. This combination helps your sailboat efficiently point into the wind, allowing for a quicker upwind speed. This increased performance can make a difference when racing or navigating through tight spaces.

Cons of T-keel

However, T-keels are not without their drawbacks. One potential downside is that T-keel boats tend to have a larger draft than other types of keels, meaning they require deeper water for sailing. This can restrict your ability to sail in shallow waters around bays or near shorelines, limiting your access to certain areas.

Another drawback of T-keels is that they can be more prone to grounding due to their design. If you accidentally run aground or hit an underwater object, the T-keel may be more likely to experience damage or become difficult to dislodge. This can lead to costly repairs or complications when trying to free your sailboat.

The Scheel Keel is a unique keel type that was designed by naval architect Henry Scheel in the 1970s. This keel offers a compromise between performance and stability, making it a popular choice for many sailboat owners. In this section, we'll discuss the pros and cons of the Scheel Keel to help you decide if it's the right choice for your sailing needs.

Pros of Scheel keel

Shallow draft : One of the main advantages of the Scheel Keel is its shallow draft. This allows you to navigate in shallower waters, making it easier to access more anchorage spots and enjoy cruising in coastal areas.

Stability : With its wide, flat bottom, the Scheel Keel provides good stability, making your sailboat feel more secure and comfortable in various conditions. This can be especially beneficial for less experienced sailors or those who prefer a more stable ride.

Efficient upwind performance : The Scheel Keel is designed to improve upwind performance without sacrificing stability. This means you can sail more efficiently and at a better angle to the wind, which can be a noticeable advantage in many sailing situations.

Cons of Scheel keel

Potential for decreased speed : Due to its wide, flat bottom, the Scheel Keel can create more drag, which may decrease your overall speed in comparison to other keel types. While the Scheel Keel offers improved upwind performance, it may not be the best choice for you if maximizing speed is your primary concern.

Maintenance : The unique shape of the Scheel Keel can make it more susceptible to damage, particularly if you frequently sail in shallow waters or near shorelines with rocks and other hazards. As a result, you might need to pay closer attention to the maintenance and repair of your keel.

Limited availability : While many sailors appreciate the benefits of the Scheel Keel, it's not as widely available as some other keel designs. This could make it more difficult for you to find a sailboat with a Scheel Keel or to have one retrofitted to your current boat.

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• Sailboat Reviews

A Look at Sailboat Design: Fin Keels vs. Full Keels

Details like keel design count when considering cruising sailboats..

Photos by Ralph Naranjo

When a keel tears away from a sailboats hull, it makes the loss of a rig or rudder seem like a minor inconvenience. History shows that its an uncommon occurrence, but because we now annually hear of such incidents, weve decided to take a closer look at keels and see what keeps the ballast where it belongs.

The International Sailing Federation (ISAF) Offshore Special Regulations devotes pages to helping sailors prevent and respond to a crew overboard incident. There is nothing about how to handle the loss of a keel or ballast bulb. Some might say this is because such occurrences are so infrequent, while others note that, if youre still upright once the ballast breaks off theres not much you can do other than blow the sheets, douse the sails as quickly as possible and attempt to stop any leaks.

When solo sailor Mike Plants Open 60 Coyote lost her lead bulb in 1992, Mike was lost at sea. Other adventure-sailors have survived near instantaneous capsize precipitated by keel loss. In 2003, round-the-world racer Tim Kent and his crew capsized when Everest Horizontal lost its ballast on the way back from Bermuda. US Sailing Safety at Sea Committee Chairman Chuck Hawley was aboard the racing sloop Charlie, on the way back from Hawaii, when a loud groaning sound led to a deep heel as the lead peeled away from the keel bolts and ballast headed straight to the bottom. This encounter at least had a happy ending thanks to the crews quick actions to douse sail. Apparently the keel had been cast with too little antimony (an additive that causes lead to become a harder alloy). The point here is that keeping the keel attached is as important as keeping the crew safely on board. And for the offshore monohull sailor, preventing a keel loss, like preventing crew overboard, requires some informed forethought.

A ballast keel on a sailboat is a classic example of potential energy poised in a balancing act. The buoyancy of the hull itself offsets the effect of thousands of pounds of lead or iron. At rest, gravitys attraction for the dense material strains against the buoyancy of the hull, and the adjacent garboard region is continuously in tension. Few sailors spend much time contemplating how keel bolts corrode and what cycle-loading does to the resin matrix comprising the garboard region just above the ballast. What is apparent, is that the attachment material, whether it be wood, metal or fiber reinforced plastic (FRP), must be able to support a mass of metal weighing as much as a small truck-and do so day in and day out for decades.

Underway, every tack causes the rig and sailplan to try to lever this ballast package free from the hull. And when the helmsman starts daydreaming about lobster for dinner and wanders off course onto a granite ledge Down East, the keel designed to handle sailing loads takes it on the chin. Its easy to see why experienced designers and builders lose sleep over their decisions about keel shape, structure, and what kind of safety factor should be built into the structure.

Its surprising to discover that with better materials and computer-aided design, we still hear about incidents such as the Rambler capsize in the 2011 Fastnet Race (PS, May 2012). Just as significant is a spate of smaller race boat keel-ectomies that have caused ISAF to send out a cautionary note to sailors around the world, and introduce new structural standards for race boats. Keeping the ballast attached to the boat involves an awareness of a chain-like set of failure points. And one of the most difficult decisions each designer must make is how to marry foil efficiency with a structural safety margin that covers the boats intended usage and the unintended use of the keel as a depth sounding device.

For decades, engineers and naval architects have had to contend with some racing sailors Icarus-like quest-a trend that prioritizes shedding weight and making the keel foil a long, thin appendage with a high-aspect ratio. Though not quite a flight toward the sun with wings made of wax and feathers, some race-boat scan’tlings walk a fine line between lightweight and structural failure. The challenge lies in attaching a lead bulb on a high-tensile steel foil to a lightweight, high-modulus, FRP hull. Interconnecting the dense metallic ballast to the lower-density foam/fiberglass hull structure is a true engineering puzzle. Part of the challenge lies in the dissipation of point loads (confined to a relatively small area) and how to handle the resulting stress risers. A stress riser is the point at which theres an abrupt change in a materials flexibility, such as where a stiff, fin keel meets the more elastic hull bottom. In FRP composites like those found in a balsa-cored hull, stress risers are a likely place for delamination to occur. Over time, these can result in the failure of the FRP composite.

The see-saw effect of the keel counteracting a vessels righting moment is a mathematically predictable energy transfer. Even the effect of groundings such as those that turn hull speed into a dead stop can be quantified. But its the cumulative effect of fatigue (localized structural damage caused by cyclical loading) and corrosion that are harder to pin down.

The term allision refers to hitting a fixed object such as a granite ledge or coral reef. Naval architects analyze the energy transfer and evaluate the stress and strain characteristics that occur. The recognition that the keel-to-hull connection must endure even more punishment than is doled out in heavy-weather sailing episodes is at the heart of how structural specs are devised.

Designers also must consider the jack-hammer-like pounding of a keel on a reef in surf, and realize that there are limits to the abuse a keel and hull can endure. With this in mind, its reasonable to assume that sailboat keels should be built to handle sailing induced loads for decades. It is the extra safety factor built into the boat that defines what happens when the sandbar is a rock pile.

What is harder to anticipate are the unusual encounters that can inflict serious damage to the keel connection. Take, for example, what happens when a sailboats deep fin keel is wedged in a rocky cleft and a good Samaritan with a big powerboat attempts to pivot the sailboat using a line attached to the bow. The distance from the keels vertical centerline to the stem may be 20 feet or more, and with a couple of thousand pounds of bollard pull, the 20-foot lever arm creates a rotary force that can spike to 40,000 foot-pounds or more. This level of torque goes well beyond what most designers and builders model as sailing loads, and its likely to seriously damage the boat.

In plain low-tech talk, extreme fin keels provide a valuable performance edge, but they come with their own set of downsides that every owner needs to be aware of. In essence, the more radical the keel shape, the better the crew must navigate.

A couple of decades ago, PS Technical Editor Ralph Naranjo ran a boatyard and had a client who liked to cut the corners during Block Island Race Week. His first spinnaker reach into a granite boulder stopped the boat and shoved the companionway ladder upward six inches. This underscored how an allision that causes the keel to stop abruptly transfers a shock wave through the entire hull. The resulting compression cracked several transverse members in the New York 40 and damaged the core in the canoe body near the garboard.

The FRP repairs had to be tapered and all delamination problems resolved. The moderate-aspect-ratio lead fin keel absorbed a good deal of the blunt trauma. Judging from the cannonball-size dent on the leading edge of the lead keel, it was clear that the impact was significant. The dent offered grim proof of the advantage of having soft lead instead of steel as keel ballast. New floor frames were added, the broken transverse members were replaced, and the boat was off and sailing.

The next season, the boat had another Block Island encounter, and only because the Petersen-designed New York 40 was a pretty ruggedly built boat was a second repair even considered. This time, an equally violent keel-to-hull trauma came from an on-the-wind encounter with a different rock. The extent of the delamination was greater than it had been in the first go round, and more extensive core removal and repair was required. The keel was dropped in order to check the bolts and the garboard. With the bilge fully opened for the FRP repair work, the repair crew made a pattern of the canoe body dead rise and fore and aft contour. As the glass work was being completed, they fabricated a stainless-steel grid that would spread keel loads fore and aft as well as athwartship. The new grid reinforced the keel attachment and returned the sloop to the race course.

Afterward, Naranjo and the owner discussed the details of the repair, including the possibility of hidden, widespread damage from the two groundings. These included the dynamic loads imposed upon the chainplates and rigging, the likelihood of hidden resin-cracking, and potential for more delamination and core shear linked to the torque induced by the accident. In short, any serious allision causes overt and hard-to-detect damage far from the actual impact zone, and these can lead to more problems down the road. When buying a used boat, look for a good pedigree, but also look for signs of previous blunt-force trauma. A good surveyor will be skilled in such structural forensics, and he or she will do more than comment on the gelcoat shine.

In the early days of wooden ships and iron men, a lack of dense metal ballast put less point-loading in the garboard region of the hull. Bilges free of cargo were filled with rocks or tighter-fitting granite blocks cut for more compact stacking. The principal of ballasting a vessel was to lower her center of gravity (CG) and create both an increase in the righting arm and a greater righting moment to offset the heeling moment created by the rig and sail plan. The keel also helped lessen leeway and would evolve into an appendage that added lift.

Movable ballast had a few downsides, not the least of which was its propensity to move in the wrong direction at the very worst moment. Even small boat sailors have found out what can happen to unsecured pigs of lead ballast when the boat heels far enough over for gravity to overcome friction. Whether stones, lead, movable water ballast, or a can’ting keel are used to augment the boats righting moment, a sailor must anticipate the worst-case scenario. This is when the weight ends up on the leeward side of the boat and a bad situation can turn into a real catastrophe. Fixing or locking ballast in place, controlling the volume of water put in ballast tanks, and limiting the can’ting keels range are sensible compromises.

Internal ballast, the ballast inside a keel envelope thats contiguous with the hull, is still seen in many new boats. Island Packet is an example of a builder has stuck with this traditional approach of securing ballast without using keel bolts. Its a sensible design for shoal-draft cruisers, and the upsides are numerous. These high-volume, long-range cruisers arent encumbered by the demands prioritized by light displacement, performance-oriented sailors. Instead, Island Packets combine a rugged laminate and a long-footed, shallow-draft keel. This may not place the lead or iron ballast as deep as the tip of a fin keel, but it does keep the all-important CG low enough to deliver a powerful righting moment along with shoal draft.

In order to deliver the high angle of vanishing stability (AVS) also known as limit of positive stability (LPS), designer Bob Johnson puts what amounts to an internal bulb in the very lowest point in the boat. This long slug of iron or lead (depending on the model) is then covered by Portland cement, locking it in the Island Packets monocoque structure. The result is a contiguous FRP structure spreading keel loads efficiently over a considerable amount of hull skin. Keel bolts and the infamous garboard seam are completely eliminated. This approach to sailboat keel design dates back to the Rhodes Bounty II and other prototypes in the production world of sailboats. Now over 50 years old, many of these boats continue to have a tenacious grasp on the lead or iron that they hold.

Encapsulated iron ballast is much less desirable than encapsulated lead, and its sad to see builders skimp on this. Iron, or even worse steel, has been used in many Far Eastern encapsulated keels. It works as long as water and the resulting oxidation havent caused expansion and cracking of the seal. Lead is also denser than ferrous metal, and therefore, the same amount of ballast will have a smaller volume and create less drag.

Encapsulated ballast starts to be less appealing as keels become more fin-like and high-aspect ratio. The reason for this is that the geometry of the support changes, focusing more load on less area of the hull. As hull shapes evolved into canoe underbodies with hard turns in the bilge, and fin-like keels became thinner, deeper, and with shorter chord measurements (thickness), the concept of encapsulated keel became impractical. The Cal 40, Ericson 39, Pearson 365, and a long list of similar genre boats signified the end of an era when performance racer/cruisers would be built with encapsulated ballast.

External Ballast

Performance-oriented sailors and race-boat designers quickly latched on to hull shapes marked by deep-draft, foil-shaped, high-aspect ratio fin keels. From the late 60s to whats currently glowing on CAD screens in designer offices around the world, keels have grown deeper and shorter in chord length, and bulb or anvil-like tips have grown more and more common.

The design development was sound, lift was enhanced, and deeper-not longer-became the answer to getting to windward faster. The challenge was not only in designing an efficient shape, it lay in creating an attachment means that minimized foil flex and twist, retained the low drag coefficient, and still had the ability to withstand an occasional, albeit modest, grounding.

During this same period, marine surveyors and boatyard techs began to see moderate groundings result in major structural problems. The classic example was the allision that produced a moderate dent in the lead at the leading edge of the keel tip. In many cases, further inspection revealed cracks radiating outward from a knot meter or depth sounder mistakenly placed just ahead of the keel. An even closer look often revealed grid damage or a cracked bulkhead just aft of the last keel bolt. Like the New York 40 mentioned earlier, this was a result of a shock wave radiating through the hull structure. As we learned in Mrs. McCrearys science class, Bodies in motion tend to stay in motion, unless acted on by an equal and opposite force. Fin keel sailboats encountering abrupt energy transfers,tend to endure more damage than their long-keel counterparts.

A forensic look at the Achilles heel of external ballast highlights a few pitfalls. First the good news: Lead absorbs impact well, consuming much of the imparted energy through deformation. However, the translation of the remaining energy from the metal keel foil and keelbolts into an FRP hull is where we often find stress risers, and point loading linked to material and hull shape changes. The near right-angle interface between a modern sailboats canoe body and its deep fin keel is a classic load-path hotspot. In the old days, fiberglass techs spoke of oil-canning or the dimpling of a large section of the garboard as tacks were swapped.

Today Naval Architects use Finite Element Analysis (FEA) to better engineer hull structure. Colorized graphics pinpoint load concentration, glowing bright red in the region where the keel joins the hull, the epicenter of the oil-canning. A common solution to coping with this high-load focal point, is to eliminate core in the region and to gradually increase the unit schedule (layers of FRP), or to add an internal FRP grid. Maximum thickness of a keel stub is located where the keelbolts penetrate the stub. In this region, the solid glass thickness is often equal to the dimension of the keel bolt diameter or even greater.

Laminate thickness at the keel bolts is only part of the equation. Just as important is how the transition to the general hull laminate transpires. A bullet-proof keel stub that immediately transitions into a core hull comprising two units of laminate on each side of the panel creates whats equivalent to a tear-on-the-dotted-line weakness. Transitions that involve sharp angles and marked differences in panel strength require a well-reinforced taper that spreads loads gradually rather than abruptly.

Occasionally, we see massive metal frameworks used in the bilge as support for keel bolts; these structures need to be carefully engineered to not create the same hard spot fracture points. When carefully tapered in order to gradually introduce more flex, the problem is abated, as it was in the repair of the New York 40 mentioned earlier. The stainless-steel grid built to support the keel loads incorporated a gradual decrease in stiffness to the framework. The keel was carefully mated to the underside of this grid to ensure full contact (See Keel Bolt Repair Options, online). As a result, the crew relieved the hard spots at the end points and made the transition to the more flexible FRP hull less dramatic.

For cruisers, the take-away lesson is that extra reinforcement, a long garboard keel-to-hull interface, and internal transverse and longitudinal reinforcement really do pay off. Keep in mind that the extra weight this entails is all below the center of gravity and contributes to the secondary righting moment as well as keeping the water out.

This is a big departure from the way many modern production boats are built. They carry a skimpy ballast ratio of 30 percent or less, have less structure to support the keel and are not designed to handle unintended cruising consequences. There are exceptions, and its worth looking at the keel design and structure of the Navy 44 Mark II and the USCG Leadership 44 (see PS, August 2012). These boats utilize external ballast and are examples of rugged keel attachment. They have a relatively long keel-to-stub garboard junction, the laminate scan’tling meets American Bureau of Shipping recommendations, and both utilize an overabundance of 316 stainless-steel keel bolts and an FRP grid to keep the keel where it belongs.

There are many reasons why were seeing more keel problems today. On one hand, light, fast, race-boat design pushes the envelope, and thats probably OK. But when mainstream racer/cruisers start to suffer from lead loss, too much of one good thing (high-aspect ratio) and too little of another good thing (reinforcement) can begin creeping into design and construction.

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Sailboat Keel Types: A Complete Guide

A keel is a very important part of a sailboat, crucial to its stability and ability to sail upwind. This article will discuss the fundamentals of all keels down to the details of the best keel for your boat. We will answer questions including what it does, what it's made of, and even some problems that a keel can cause. By the end of this article, you will be an expert on all things keels!

Table of contents

What Is a Keel?

A keel is the robust underwater centerline of a boat, and often extends into a long, hydrodynamically shaped blade.. It can vary in size and shape depending on the make and model of the boat. But, generally, it will look very much like a fin. If you imagine the fin on the underside of a surfboard you will have a pretty good idea of what it looks like under the boat.

It is crucial to helping with steering and control. The word keel itself comes from Norse and Dutch roots. The word simply means a structural component of the boat. You may have heard the term keel-haul, where pirates would drag someone underneath the boat across its keel. This is pretty barbaric, but it shows just how long a keel has been an important part of the boat. From Vikings to pirates to modern sailboats it has always remained an important part of a sailboat.

What is a keel made of?

A keel will typically be made of whatever the rest of the hull is made of. If the boat is wooden, it will most likely have a wooden keel. If the boat is metal, the keel will be metal, and so on. Sometimes, particularly on fiberglass boats, the core of a keel will be reinforced with lead or a similar ballast while the outside is covered with fiberglass.

The keel needs to be strong enough to withstand a lot of pressure and strain. Traditionally Viking sailing boats would have a wooden keel with some metal plating on it. Casting metal was tedious so putting it on your boat was seen as a waste. Traditional wooden sailing boats, like you would imagine pirates sailing, would also have a wooden keel. It would be made from thick hardwood like oak and could also be metal plated.

Since it is used to control the direction it must brunt the force of the change of direction. If you imagine a boat turning sharply, there will be a lot of pressure on the side that is on the outside of the turn. The hull of your boat will stand up to this pressure easily, as it is very large and very strong. The keel must be strong enough to withstand this too. The keel also can drag on the ocean floor or the boat ramp as the boat is lowered into the water. For this reason, it needs to be strong enough to hold up to the weight and pressure of the boat too. If it were made of plastic it would break every time you brought the boat in and out of the water.

What does a keel do?

The keel is there primarily for stability and guidance. The keel provides all sorts of benefits to the boat. It improves the righting moment and controls the boat’s sideways movement. The keel will also typically hold the boat’s ballast. The ballast keeps the boat weighed down and helps prevent capsizing. The ballast is typically made of lead, sand, or water.

Keels can be fixed or moveable. Some keels can be removed completely or may just retract slightly so they aren’t damaged when the boat enters or exits the water. When a boat leans to one side, because it is turning or there is strong wind/waves, the keel provides the righting moment that keeps the boat from flipping. On larger boats, it is designed to be so heavy that ig will be able to recover a boat from almost any angle of heel. Without a keel, your boat may tip too far or roll completely. On bigger ships, this can be disastrous. In its ability to prevent this alone, the keel is one of the most important parts of the ship.

Does my sailboat need a keel?

Yes, you do need a keel. Pretty much all sailboats have a keel, with exceptions for multi-hulled and/or smaller boats.  

In the case of catamarans, the very design principles that lead to the dual-hull design render the keel obsolete. The stability introduced by the outrigged, dual-hulls replaces the necessary righting moment from the keel. Because almost all the structure of a catamaran is between the two hulls, unlike a monohull which builds out from and around its centerline, there is not a lot of weight pressing out to flip the boat. Related to this, since most catamarans have the length of their hulls pressing into the water, the steering force normally placed on a keel is distributed across the length of the two hulls, which additionally will carry their own ballast.

On smaller dinghies, a small swinging centerboard or daggerboard will suffice to play the role of a keel. The centerboards can be big enough to keep the boat flowing nicely through the water without the need for a large keel. Additionally, it is not a disaster for a small sailing or racing dinghy to capsize, as they are designed to do so and recover rather easily, so the ballast from the keel is also not terribly necessary. 

If you have a motorboat you wouldn’t need a keel, unless it is a very large container ship or military vessel. The reason being that they are outboard propelled. The leg provides enough stability on its own. This is only the case with full plane powerboats. Displacement (even semi-displacement) craft will still need a keel of sorts for stability purposes.

What are some downsides to having a longer keel?

If you have a long keel that doesn’t retract or detach, you may have some problems coming in or out of the water. The keel extends far below the bottom of the boat, so if you are bringing your boat up or down a boat ramp you may find that it scrapes on the bottom. If you are not careful, you may damage the keel rather badly.

Since the keel is made of metal, wood, or fiberglass it can bear the brunt of the weight quite well. If you are putting your boat in the water and cannot retract the keel, it is a good idea to go as far into the water as possible before taking your boat off its trailer. The deeper you are in the water when the boat is released the better.

Are there any nautical traditions about the keel of the boat?

The keel is interestingly very important when it comes to boat or shipbuilding.

Traditionally, the keel is one of the first parts of the ship to be made, as the rest of the ship must sometimes be built around it. This tradition is called “laying the keel,” and is a momentous occasion. It is essentially the boat’s birthday. The boat’s age is dated from this moment, and there is also typically a celebration of sorts. This goes back to the days of seafaring exploration. The only day more important in a boat’s life is the day it is finally launched.

Can other types of boats have keels?

Yes! Many other types of boats have keels, not just sailboats. A good example would be a big shipping trawler. These trawlers are very large and need all the help they can get to stay balanced. Because of this, they often have what’s called a bar keel. This is a large rectangular piece of metal that runs along the bottom of the boat’s hull. It is very thick and heavy. The idea is that it gives the boat some more directional control when steering.

Furthermore, it helps keep the trawler balanced when out at sea in rough conditions. The extra weight keeps the boat’s center of gravity as low as possible. This makes tipping the boat almost impossible. It does slow it down a bit, but that is a small price to pay for increased safety.

Huge cargo ships also have a keel, though it is different from a bar. Their keel is known as a plate keel. It is essentially another layer of the boat under the hull. Its only purpose is added weight and protection. A plate keel runs along the centreline of the bottom plate of the ship so the weight is all concentrated in the lowest place possible. This kind of keel works similarly to how the spine of a person does. It keeps your back strong and as straight as possible.

How important is it to keep my keel clean?

It is very important to keep your keel clean, just as it is important to keep the rest of your hull clean.

For any boat kept on the water rather than hauled out every day, there is always the need to clean the hulls and keels of any barnacles and other sea growth. Barnacles not only affect your performance, but can, in the long run, greatly increase your maintenance costs if not regularly addressed. 

To do so, you have to do what is known as scraping. Scraping is the process of physically scraping off all the barnacles and other sea life that has attached itself to the underside of your boat. Many marinas offer this service, but you can do it on your own with a basic plastic paint scraper and a wetsuit. When you do this, it is key to get all the way down to the bottom of the keel and all across the hull. If you don’t scrape it off, it can start to erode your boat away over time. It can also slow you down.The barnacles and other marine life create a very rough bottom. This creates more friction and will reduce your speed more and more the worse it gets. 

It is important to check with your port authority before you start scraping. Scraping is not allowed in some places as you may introduce invasive species to the area. It depends where you have been more than where you are. If you sailed from New York to Chicago, you will be fine. If you sailed from Cuba to New York, probably not so much.

How to maintain a sailboat keel

As mentioned above, it is important to scrape your keel from time to time. While racing boats will actually do this before every day at an event, it is at least a good idea for you to do this a couple of times a season. A great time to do this is when you plan on applying that season’s bottom paint, though anytime you plan to go on your boat is a good excuse to maintain!

You may want to cut off any of the kelp and seaweed that wraps itself around the keel. This is more likely to happen if you have a fin keel. If you do find that there is a lot of kelp and seaweed wrapped around it, you will want to buy yourself a kelp cutter. Unfortunately, the only way to cut the kelp off without taking the boat out of the water is to dive in and do it yourself. It is a good idea to do this in shallow-ish water with the proper flags displayed to inform other boaters that there is someone in the water. Swimming around under your boat, even when it isn’t moving, can be dangerous.

What do I do if my keel breaks at sea?

It is very rare for keels to just break off. It is even rarer at sea. After all, what is going to break it off? The only way a keel will break off ordinarily is if you run aground.

If you should accidentally make your way into shallow waters and break your keel off it is a good idea to set sail for home. You will manage well enough in the short term but will struggle over time. You are far more likely to capsize without the keel keeping you balanced.

If you have a detachable keel it is a good idea to keep a replacement. If one breaks off, you can just install the spare one. This isn’t the easiest thing to do at sea in rough conditions, but it is possible. Make a judgment call using your common sense whether it is worth the risk or not.

Another reason your keel might break or come loose is if the keel bolts come out. These bolts are what holds the keel in place. If you happen to have a keel held on by bolts, then doing proper maintenance is even more important. If the bolts come loose, the keel can come loose.

Since the keel is typically welded on to the boat’s hull the chances of it coming off completely are slim to none. Most often, running aground on a sandbar or anything short of an incredibly rocky bottom in heavy weather will crack off a piece or severely bend the keel, which requires a major repair. If you do notice that the keel is loose, you are better off taking it back to the marina. The bolts may not come off without using some machinery, meaning you might have to take your boat out of the water. If your keel starts to rust, you may need to speak to a professional.

What are the different keel types?

Now you know what a keel is, what it does, why it is important, and how to care for one it is time to learn about the specific types of keels. Big trawlers and cargo ships have bar or plate keels, but sailboats do not. Here are the 6 different types of keels typically found on sailboats and their purposes:

The full keel is one of the most common types of the keel that you are likely to see on a sailboat. A full keel runs from end to end of the boat lengthways. A full keel, as the name implies, runs almost the entire length of the boat. At a minimum, it must run 50% of the length of the boat. A full keel is one of the most stable keel types, which is why it is so common. Full keels are also safer should you run aground. If a boat with a full keel should come ashore, it will cut its way through the sand and eventually land on its side. Whether you are grounding your boat intentionally or not, your boat will have far better odds of surviving the ordeal with a full keel.

A fin keel is similar to a full keel, just shorter. There may be one or two fin keels along the length of the boat hull. A fin keel is defined by being less than 50% the length of the boat. The fin keel works almost entirely the same way that a shark's fin does. When you wish to turn, the keel provides the resistive force that keeps you turning. This means that it essentially acts as your tires going into a turn. Whereas a full keel is essentially just a long fin, a fin keel has very different benefits. A full keel is more stable and safer overall. A fin keel is sleeker, smaller, and most importantly makes you faster. Most racing sailboats have fin keels.

A bulbed keel is very similar to a fin keel. In fact, it is possible to make a bulb keel by shaving off part of a fin keel and attaching a bulb. Once the keel has been made substantially shorter, the bulb is fitted. The bulb is shaped similarly to how a torpedo would be on a submarine. This keel works the same as a fin keel does, offering a slightly more stability without sacrificing speed. The biggest difference between a bulb and a fin keel (besides shape and length) is where they are used. Bulb keels are most commonly used in places with very shallow waters and lots of rock/shale/coral outcrops. Somewhere like the Caribbean would be the perfect place for a bulb keel. The rounded bulb bounces off the rocks and is less likely to break off. It just isn’t going to be as quick as if you used a fin keel.

The wing keel is another alternative to your standard fin keel. Just like the bulb keel, a wing keel is an extension to the standard fin keel with an extra fitting at the bottom. A wing keel is far more streamlined than a bulbed one, at the expense of being more susceptible to breaking. A wing keel looks very similar to the tail of an airplane. It works the same way, too. The water can pass by either side of the wings, allowing you to adjust your course easily. But, a wing keel does have one major problem. If you do run aground, digging out a wing keel can be very difficult. Whereas digging out a standard fin is as simple as scraping sand away from the sides of it, a wing keel must be dug out completely. The wings act like little shovels and wedge themselves into the sand. These are generally limited to higher performance racing classes.

Centerboard Keel

A centerboard keel works similarly to a fin keel but it can retract slightly. It works by having a dagger that folds out downwards. When you are sailing, the dagger protrudes outwards and offers you all the stability and balance of a fin keel. When you are in shallow water, the dagger can be retracted upwards, essentially shortening the keel temporarily. This should be done when you are sailing in shallow waters or removing the boat from the water entirely using a boat ramp. Some centerboards work on a loose hinge. When the boat is sailing along, the dagger is out and the fin works as normal. If you should bump into something though, like some shallow rocks, the hinge would push the daggerboard back inside. This stops the keel from breaking, instead, it just moves out the way. This only works if you are only just deep enough. If you are in very shallow water you would just break the centerboard off.

Canting Keel

A canting keel also works on a hinge. Instead of working end to end, it works port to starboard. When the boat turns a corner, the canting keel swings from side to side. This allows the boat to maximize its balance and speed. Eventually, this will become the norm in racing. But at the moment it is still quite experimental. The biggest downside is that the hinge works on hydraulics, and hydraulics can fail. If they should fail at sea there is very little you can do to repair them. Once they have perfected these canting keels, they will move first into the racing classes and high performance boats, then to all new cruising boats as boatbuilders improve the technology. .

Hopefully, you now have a good idea about what a sailboat keel is,how it works, why it is so important, and, of course, all the different types. Chances are, when you buy a sailboat , the keel it has is going to be at the bottom of your list of priorities. That being said, if you are planning on sailing somewhere in particular, it is a good idea to think about what keel type you are using. Replacing them doesn’t have to be expensive, but you can go a long way to saving yourself that money either way by being prepared for your home waters!

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Daniel Wade

I've personally had thousands of questions about sailing and sailboats over the years. As I learn and experience sailing, and the community, I share the answers that work and make sense to me, here on Life of Sailing.

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What is a Fin Keel

Feb 27, 2020

less than a min

Anyone who is new to the marine world is certainly looking to learn more. One step towards this task is to increase your vocabulary and learn as many new terms as you can. Lucky for you, there is a lot to go on. The marine world literally has a dictionary of its own. One term you have probably stumbled upon is the fin keel . So, what is a fin keel actually ?

The fin keel is a very common term in the shipbuilding industry. This is the main structural piece of the boat . It is also considered as the backbone of the vessel , which is located at the bottom in a longitudinal way across the hull. It runs from the stem to the stern and it is made of strong material to ensure the stability of the boat. Usually, it consists of metal or timber. 

Fin keel properties

In the past, the keel was used to keep the ribs together, in addition to maintaining the stem and sternpost in place. There are a few types of keel, such as the full keel or the ballast keel , used for stability and lateral resistance; the drop of sliding keel, used to prevent the boat from side slipping; the bilge keel, intended to check to roll; and lastly, the fin keel.

The fin keel is a narrow plate positioned in the middle of the ship, mostly to the keel of a shallow boat. It can be made of wood or metal and it projects downwards. The main job of a fin keel is to provide lateral resistance and make the boat steadier. The boat is easier to steer when it has a fin keel. Usually this keel is almost 50% of the length of the bottom of the boat and it helps reduce drag and make less leeway. As a result, the boat is able to go faster while being more stable for its weight.

When combined with modern sail plans and materials, they are even more efficient. Nowadays, the fin keel is a separate rudder like a skeg hung or spade and it is probably the most common form of the keel. For some, fin keels also have some disadvantages such as less directional stability. They are also harder to engineer and support hard grounding.  The fin keel is a good component to compare boats on . More information can be found when looking at boats and their features on boat comparison databases such as TheBoatDB . There, you can find details on the size, material and stability of the fin keel used on various boat models. TheBoatDB can be used to find out all the features of the boat you are interested in, or even look into the same features of different boats, compare characteristics in order to make a more informed decision and ultimately decide which boat to buy. 

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Sailboat Keel Types: A Comprehensive Guide

by Emma Sullivan | Jul 25, 2023 | Sailboat Maintenance

Short Answer: Sailboat Keel Types

There are several types of sailboat keels, including full keel, fin keel, wing keel, bulb keel, and daggerboard. Each type provides different characteristics in terms of stability, maneuverability, and performance. Sailors choose the keel type based on their sailing preferences and intended usage of the boat.

Understanding Sailboat Keel Types: A Comprehensive Guide

As any avid sailor can testify, understanding the different sailboat keel types is paramount to a successful and pleasurable sailing experience. A sailboat’s keel acts as its foundation, providing stability, preventing sideways drift, and enhancing overall performance. With various keel options available in the market, it can be quite overwhelming for newcomers or even seasoned sailors to grasp the nuances of each type.

In this comprehensive guide, we aim to unravel the mystery surrounding sailboat keels. From traditional full keels to modern fin keels and everything in between, let’s embark on a journey through their characteristics, advantages, disadvantages, and their impact on sailing dynamics.

1. Full Keel:

Let’s start with the old-school favorite – the full keel. As its name suggests, this keel extends from bow to stern and offers exceptional stability due to its large surface area below the waterline. The long length also promotes tracking ability – keeping your boat moving in a straight line without much effort. Although typically found on older vessels or those designed for long-distance cruising rather than racing, full keels excel in handling heavy weather conditions and provide an overall smooth ride through choppy waters.

However, there is a trade-off when it comes to maneuverability. The deep draft can restrict access to shallower areas and make tacking (changing direction by turning into the wind) more demanding. Additionally, due to their shape and size, full keels may sacrifice some speed potential compared to their sleeker counterparts.

2. Fin Keel:

Enter modernity – the fin keel revolutionized sailing dynamics when it was introduced decades ago and remains one of today’s most popular choices among sailors seeking performance-oriented vessels. This relatively narrow (or “fin-like”) appendage protrudes deep below the hull and serves as both a counterbalance against sideways forces and a pivot point for agile maneuvers.

The fin keel’s streamlined design offers enhanced speed, better upwind capabilities, and improved responsiveness. Sailors planning to participate in racing events or seeking a thrill-seeking sailing experience often favor this type of keel. Moreover, the reduced draft allows for access to shallower waters – perfect for exploring coves or venturing closer to shore.

However, it’s essential to recognize that while fin keels excel in speed and maneuverability, stability can be compromised. A narrow base may result in more heel (tilting) when exposed to strong crosswinds, demanding careful attention from sailors. Furthermore, grounding risks are higher due to the shallower depth.

3. Winged Keel:

For those looking for a middle ground between full keels and fin keels, winged keels provide an intriguing compromise. Originating from the America’s Cup yacht races during the 1980s and 1990s, these unique designs feature additional horizontal wings near the bottom of the main keel shaft.

Their purpose? To improve stability by effectively increasing the lateral surface area without significantly increasing draft. This innovative approach enhances windward performance while maintaining maneuverability and reducing heeling.

4. Bulb Keel:

The bulb keel is another darling of modern sailboat design – especially prevalent among cruising boats aiming for optimal balance between cruising comfort and performance capabilities. These keels utilize a large torpedo-shaped bulb at their base, which concentrates weight lower down for increased stability while reducing overall drag.

Bulb keels offer excellent upwind performance, advanced tracking ability, and minimal lateral movement when navigating waves or choppy seas – all qualities keenly sought after by bluewater cruisers or liveaboard sailors longing for long voyages with maximum safety and comfort.

5. Swing Keel/Centreboard:

Now let’s discuss something adaptable – swing keels (also known as centerboards). This versatile option provides flexibility in both deep water sailing and shallow anchorage areas. Swing keels can be raised or lowered as needed, allowing sailors to decrease draft in shoal waters and subsequently improve maneuverability, while also providing deeper draw for enhanced upwind performance on open seas.

The ability to retract the keel provides opportunities for exploring hidden bays, rivers, or other areas inaccessible to boats with fixed keels. However, this convenience comes with a downside. The mechanism required for raising and lowering the keel may add weight to the boat and increase maintenance requirements.

To conclude, understanding sailboat keel types is crucial when choosing a vessel that aligns with your sailing goals and needs. Whether you prioritize stability, speed, maneuverability, or versatility depends on where and how you envision your nautical adventures unfolding. We hope this comprehensive guide has shed light on the various options available in their witty and clever explanations – setting you on a course towards well-informed decision making when it comes to sailboat keels.

Choosing the Right Sailboat Keel Type for Your Needs: Step-by-Step Process

Purchasing a sailboat is an exciting venture, but it can also be quite overwhelming when faced with the multitude of options available. One crucial decision to make is selecting the right keel type for your sailing needs. The keel plays a vital role in determining the stability, performance, and maneuverability of your sailboat. Hence, understanding the various keel types and their features will help you make an informed decision. In this blog post, we will take you through a step-by-step process to choose the ideal sailboat keel type tailored to your specific requirements.

Step 1: Assess Your Sailing Goals Before delving into technical details, it’s important to assess your sailing goals and preferences. Are you looking for a vessel suitable for racing or one geared towards leisurely family outings? Do you plan on venturing into shallow waters or embarking on long offshore trips? Determining your primary sailing objectives will provide essential insights that shape your keel choice.

Step 2: Understand Different Keel Types Next, let’s explore the common types of sailboat keels:

1. Fin Keel: Also called a modern fin keel with a bulb, this design offers excellent performance and stability even in strong winds. It reduces drag significantly due to its sleek profile while enabling better upwind pointing ability.

2. Full Keel: A traditional full keel provides exceptional directional stability but may compromise maneuverability. Ideal for offshore cruising, it offers reduced rolling motion and enhanced safety during heavy weather conditions.

3. Wing/Daggerboard Keel: This versatile configuration combines aspects of both fixed keels and centerboards/daggerboards by retracting partially or completely when needed. This allows maximum flexibility when navigating shallow waters or adjusting for varying wind conditions.

4. Bilge Keel: Employed mainly in smaller boats, bilge keels consist of two shorter keel sections placed on either side of the hull. This design enhances stability at rest and allows for grounding without damage.

Step 3: Assess Pros and Cons Now that you understand the different keel types, it’s time to evaluate their pros and cons based on your sailing objectives:

– Fin Keel: Pros: Excellent upwind performance, great stability, higher speed potential. Cons: Vulnerable in shallow waters, reduced directional stability when not under sail.

– Full Keel: Pros: Superior directional stability, excellent resistance to leeway (sideways movement), better roll dampening in heavy conditions. Cons: Lower maneuverability in tight spaces or strong winds, reduced speed potential.

– Wing/Daggerboard Keel: Pros: Versatile and adaptable to changing conditions, improved windward performance when centerboard is down. Cons: Higher maintenance requirements compared to fixed keels.

– Bilge Keel: Pros: Enhanced stability at rest, shallow draft capability for exploring shallower waterways. Cons: Reduced pointing ability and performance, may experience more leeway compared to other keels.

Step 4: Seek Expert Advice If you’re still unsure about which keel type aligns best with your needs after assessing the pros and cons, consider reaching out to a knowledgeable yacht broker or marine expert. Their expertise can assist you in making an informed decision based on factors such as boat size, intended usage area (inland lakes vs. open ocean), and personal preferences.

Step 5: Test Sailboats & Consider Trade-offs Once you have narrowed down your options based on previous steps’ evaluation criteria, take the opportunity to test-sail different boats embodying varying keel configurations. Experiencing firsthand how each sailboat handles will give you valuable insights into their capabilities and limitations. Consider trade-offs regarding aspects like speed versus maneuverability or comfort versus stability before making your final decision.

In conclusion, selecting the correct sailboat keel type requires careful consideration and an understanding of your sailing goals. By following this step-by-step process, you’ll be equipped with the knowledge needed to choose a sailboat that perfectly aligns with your needs. Remember, there’s no one-size-fits-all answer – it’s about finding the ideal balance between performance, stability, maneuverability, and suitability for your intended purpose.

Exploring Different Sailboat Keel Designs: A Closer Look at the Options

When it comes to sailing, the design of a sailboat’s keel plays a critical role in its performance and overall handling. A well-designed keel can greatly enhance a boat’s stability, maneuverability, and efficiency on the water. With various options available in the market, it’s important to understand the differences and benefits associated with each type of sailboat keel design.

One commonly found keel design is the full keel. As its name suggests, this type extends from the bow to the stern, providing extensive support and stability to the boat. Full keels are known for their ability to track straight in rough conditions and offer excellent resistance against sideways forces such as wind or waves. This makes them well-suited for long-distance cruising and offshore sailing adventures. Additionally, full keels often have a shallower draft which allows access to more shallow waters, making them versatile for exploring coastal areas.

On the other end of the spectrum is the fin keel design. Unlike full keels, fin keels are shorter and narrower, located primarily beneath the boat’s center of gravity. This leads to improved maneuverability and allows sailors to make tighter turns more easily. Fin keels also tend to have a deeper draft which provides better upwind performance by reducing side slippage while maintaining stability.

A variant of fin keels is bulbous or winged-keels. These designs feature weighted bulbs at their lower ends, enhancing stability while still allowing for efficient upwind sailing. The added weight at the bottom reduces heeling angles during strong winds while optimizing lift characteristics under sails.

For those seeking enhanced speed capabilities with reduced drag underwater, there are high-performance sailboats that incorporate daggerboard or centerboard designs. Daggerboards slide vertically through slots on either side of a boat’s hull when deployed during sailing operations but can be retracted when not needed. They offer tremendous flexibility due to adjustable positions based on wind conditions—providing sailors an opportunity to optimize lift and reduce drag accordingly. This keel design is often favored by competitive racers who prioritize speed and agility over stability.

Lastly, a popular modern innovation is the canting keel. This keel design consists of a fin that can swing out to either side of the boat via a mechanism controlled by hydraulics or other means. The ability to adjust the angle of the keel allows for advanced maneuvering and optimizing performance based on current conditions. Canting keels are commonly found in high-performance racing yachts where every degree counts in gaining a competitive edge.

When deciding on the most suitable sailboat keel design, it ultimately depends on your intended use, sailing goals, and personal preferences. Cruisers may lean towards full or bulbous keels for their stability and versatility, whereas racers seek the swift performance offered by fin or daggerboard designs.

Whichever sailboat keel design you choose, understanding its characteristics and how it aligns with your sailing objectives is vital. Consulting with experienced sailors or marine professionals can help you make an informed decision when selecting your dream sailboat—a vessel that will carry you gracefully through all your aquatic adventures.

Frequently Asked Questions about Sailboat Keel Types: Get Answers Here!

Welcome to our blog where we aim to satisfy your curiosity about sailboat keel types! Whether you’re a seasoned sailor or just getting started in the world of sailing, understanding the different keel designs is crucial for optimizing your boat’s performance on the water. In this article, we’ve compiled some frequently asked questions to provide you with comprehensive answers and shed light on this important aspect of sailboats. So let’s dive in!

1. What is a sailboat keel? A sailboat keel refers to the underwater structure attached at the bottom of the hull that provides stability and prevents excessive sideways drift. It essentially acts as a counterbalance against wind forces acting on the sails, allowing the boat to maintain an upright position.

2. How does a sailboat keel work? The primary function of a keel is to create lift in the water as it moves through it. This lift opposes and balances the lateral forces generated by wind pressure on sails, keeping the boat from being pushed sideways or capsizing. Additionally, by increasing drag and resistance, it also helps prevent excessive speed or slipping sideways when sailing upwind.

3. What are different types of sailboat keels? There are various sailboat keel designs tailored for specific purposes:

– Fin Keel: The fin keel is one of the most common types characterized by its long, narrow shape extending vertically downwards into the water beneath the boat. It offers excellent upwind performance while minimizing drag, making it ideal for racing or competitive sailing.

– Wing Keel: A wing keel features two smaller fins (wings) positioned near its base instead of one central fin like traditional fin keels. This design aims to improve stability while reducing draft depth, enabling boats to navigate shallower waters without sacrificing performance.

– Bulb Keel: Bulb keels have an additional weighted bulb located at their lower end designed to enhance stability and reduce drag even further. These keels are often found on performance cruisers or racing yachts, offering enhanced righting moments and improved overall sailing performance.

– Full Keel: On the other end of the spectrum, full keels extend along the entire length of the boat’s bottom. They provide excellent stability but tend to sacrifice maneuverability and speed in favor of increased seaworthiness, making them well-suited for long-range cruising or bluewater sailing.

4. Which sailboat keel type is best for me? The ideal keel type depends on your specific sailing needs and preferences. If you’re primarily focused on racing or want a higher level of maneuverability, a fin keel with a bulb might be more suitable. However, if you prioritize stability and plan to embark on extended journeys or offshore passages, a full keel could be an excellent choice.

5. Can I modify my sailboat’s keel? Modifying a sailboat’s keel is generally not recommended as it can significantly alter the vessel’s balance and stability characteristics. Unless you have extensive knowledge and expertise in naval architecture, it’s best to consult with professionals before considering any modifications.

We hope this FAQ section has answered some burning questions about sailboat keels! Choosing the right type for your vessel will greatly impact your sailing experience, so take the time to research and understand each design’s advantages and limitations. Whether you’re aiming for speed, stability, or versatility – happy sailing!

Benefits and Drawbacks of Various Sailboat Keel Types: What to Consider

When it comes to choosing the perfect sailboat for your seafaring adventures, one important factor that often gets overlooked is the type of keel. A sailboat’s keel plays a crucial role in stability and maneuverability, making it essential to carefully consider the benefits and drawbacks of various keel types before making a decision. In this blog post, we will explore these different types and help you understand what factors should be considered.

1. Fin Keel: Fin keels are among the most common types found on modern sailboats. They feature a deep, narrow profile that extends vertically from the hull’s bottom. One significant benefit of fin keels is their excellent upwind performance due to their low drag and efficient water flow around them. This allows for better pointing ability and higher speeds when sailing close to the wind. However, fin keels also have some drawbacks worth considering. Due to their depth, they may limit access to shallower waters and make grounding more hazardous. Additionally, their narrow profile can result in reduced stability compared to other keel types in rough conditions or during sudden gusts of wind.

2. Wing Keel: Wing keels are designed similarly to fin keels but have two small wings extending horizontally from either side of the main fin. These wings increase the overall surface area of the keel, providing additional lift and improved stability compared to fin keels. One significant benefit of wing keels is their ability to handle shallow waters more effectively than other types without compromising performance significantly. The extra surface area also helps minimize leeway or sideways drift when sailing downwind. Despite these advantages, wing keels may present some trade-offs. The enlarged wings can induce additional drag, slightly reducing speed potential in certain conditions such as upwind sailing or going against a strong current.

3. Centerboard or Swing Keel: Centerboards or swing keels offer versatility by providing both draft adjustability and easy access to shallow waters. These keels are retractable, allowing them to be raised when navigating in shallow areas and lowered for enhanced stability in deeper waters. The main benefit of a centerboard keel is the ability to explore more secluded areas that may be inaccessible with fixed keels. They also offer better windward performance than wing or fin keels when fully deployed. However, the design limitations of centerboards can result in reduced overall lateral stability compared to fixed keels. Additionally, the mechanism used for raising and lowering the centerboard can be prone to maintenance issues or potential failure if not properly maintained.

4. Full Keel: Full keels, also known as long keels, are characterized by their extended length from bow to stern. This type provides optimal directional stability and contributes greatly to reducing leeway and weather helm even in challenging conditions. One of the primary benefits of full keels is their seaworthiness and ability to maintain course easily while cruising offshore. They tend to track well and inspire confidence in rough seas. Nevertheless, full keels have some drawbacks that should be considered. Due to their larger surface area, they generate more drag than other types of keels. This additional resistance can slightly reduce speed potential, especially in light winds or when sailing against strong currents.

In conclusion, choosing the right sailboat keel type is a critical decision that requires careful consideration based on your desired sailing conditions and preferences. Each type comes with its own set of benefits and drawbacks that need evaluation depending on factors such as intended use, cruising grounds, draft requirements, and personal skill level. By understanding these nuances and making an informed choice, you can ensure an enjoyable and safe sailing experience on whichever sailboat you ultimately decide upon.

Beginners’ Guide to Sailboat Keel Types: Everything You Need to Know

Welcome aboard to our Beginners’ Guide to Sailboat Keel Types: Everything You Need to Know! Whether you’re a novice sailor or an experienced mariner looking to brush up on your knowledge, understanding sailboat keel types is essential for enjoying a smooth sailing experience. So hoist the sails and let’s dive in!

Keels play a crucial role in stabilizing sailboats by counteracting the force of wind pushing against the sails. The right keel type ensures optimal stability, maneuverability, and overall performance under various conditions. Let’s explore some of the most common sailboat keel types you’ll encounter on your seafaring adventures:

1. Full Keel: Picture yourself cruising on a classic yacht from a bygone era – chances are it has a full keel. This traditional design encompasses a long, deep fin that extends from bow to stern, providing excellent directional stability. Full keels are ideal for longer voyages as their heavy displacement reduces rolling motion, making them resilient in rough seas.

2. Fin Keel: On the flip side of the spectrum lies the fin keel – sleek, modern, and agile. Fin keels feature a shorter but more slender profile compared to full keels, extending from just below the hull near the bow and terminating towards the stern. Their reduced surface area allows for increased speed through water while facilitating easy maneuvering and quick responsiveness.

3. Wing Keel: Imagine having wings underwater – that’s precisely what you’ll find with wing keels! These innovative designs incorporate additional extensions (wings) on either side of the main fin, increasing lateral resistance as well as stability. Wing keels offer superb shallow-water cruising capabilities, allowing sailors to explore coastal areas with ease.

4. Bulb Keel: Don’t be fooled by their name; bulb keels are anything but dull! Often seen on high-performance racing yachts or larger cruisers aiming for speed, this keel type features a lead bulb at the tip of a narrow fin. The added weight significantly lowers the boat’s center of gravity, enhancing stability and reducing heeling (sideways tilting) when harnessing strong winds.

5. Bilge Keel: If you’re looking for versatility, bilge keels are your go-to option! As the name suggests, these twin keels are positioned symmetrically on each side of the sailboat’s hull. Bilge keels provide great stability both underway and at rest while also enabling easy beaching or grounding in tidal areas. Their unique design allows for exploring shallow waters without compromising maneuverability.

As with any sailing endeavor, it’s important to remember that each sailboat keel type comes with its own set of trade-offs. Factors such as sailing conditions, intended use (racing vs. cruising), and personal preference will ultimately guide your choice.

So there you have it – a comprehensive overview of sailboat keel types to set your seafaring journey on the right course! Whether you opt for the classic elegance of a full keel or the nimble agility of a fin keel, understanding these different types empowers you to choose wisely based on your specific needs and aspirations as a sailor.

Now, all that’s left is to chart your course and let the wind fill your sails as you embark on countless exciting adventures across vast oceans or tranquil lakes. Happy sailing!

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Full Keel Vs Fin Keel On Sailboats

There are many types of keels, but the main two categories are Full and Fin Keels. Traditionally, cruising boats had a full keel, and that made them very stable in the water. This design prevailed for decades until the industry began to realize the emergence of a new type of consumer, the weekend vacationer, or sailor. For this new client, those high benefits were not a priority because rarely, if never to say, would he move away from the coast.

What is the Keel For?

Sailboats have keels to reduce the amount of slippage to leeward (the opposite side of the boat the wind is coming from). In essence, the keel of a sailboat has the function of compensating the action of the wind on the sails, preventing dejection, converting that force into thrust, and making the ship stay on course. As a general rule, the heavier and deeper a keel is, the more stable a boat is. 

Full Keel or Fin Keel?

Each keel shape has advantages and disadvantages, you will never have the “perfect” keel for your boat. But, the best keel for you and your boat completely depends on the style of sailing that you are planning on doing. 

Full Keel Sailboats

Although full keels are by far the least efficient design, they offer incredible strength and versatility. If we want to explore new waters in which we could run aground, or travel offshore, a complete keel will keep our backs better than any other. One thing is certain though, a full keel will never fall off your boat as a fin keel can.

Full Keel Advantages: 

• Handles better in tough weather
• Better directional stability
• Maneuver well in downwind conditions
• Better for offshore sailing and ocean passes
• Their movements are softer to be more in tune with the movement of the sea itself.
• Since the full keel runs through the entire hull, the forces exercised on it are transferred to a very large area, so it is often said that they are more robust.
• Thanks to their shape, they respond better to an impact against the bottom than a boat with fin keel, which could be seriously damaged.
• The rudder and propeller are more protected against a possible collision.
• If you stranded with a complete keel sailboat, the forces will be well distributed, the damage will be (in theory) minimal and your biggest concern (although not small) will be to see how to get the boat out of there.
• More stable when sitting still at anchor

Full Keel  Disadvantages : 

• Slower compared to a fin keel boat
• Handles poorly in winward conditions
• Usually more cramped than fin keeled boats.
• The turning radius is larger, which makes maneuvering in tight spaces difficult, and turning them with a weak wind can be difficult.
• You have to help more with the engine, which translates into increased wear and an increase in fuel consumption.

Fin Keel Sailboats

The fin keel is, by far, the most common type in modern sailboats. A fin keel is a flat, narrow and hydrodynamic piece located under the hull. Unlike the running keel, it is not an integral part of it but is screwed to it. To compensate for the relatively small ballast it provides, the fin keel is usually deeper.

Fin Keel  Advantages:

• They are faster than full keel boats
• They maneuver better
• Better for daysailing
• Less resistance to rudder rotation
• Short turning radius
• They usually fit better with tight schedules, such as weekend cruises.

Fin Keel  Disadvantages : 

• Less robustness and have to be repaired sooner.
• They offer less lateral resistance, which can lead to a strong and sudden heel when a wave or gust of wind hits the boat.
• They do not keep their course as well as a full keel boat and demand more effort and attention at the helm.
• The rudder is more exposed and is more vulnerable to shock and material fatigue. In this sense, an important variation of the rudder is the rudder with skeg. The skeg is a sturdy element that offers support and protection to the rudder.
• If we are stranded with a sailboat with a fin keel, we can find cracks or fissures at the junction of the keel with the hull.

Full Keel Vs Fin Keel – Summary

It is said that fin keels are made to outrun a storm and full keels ara made to weather a storm. So, a full keel sailboat will be slower but more stable during bad weather where a fin keel will be faster but more unstable. A fin keel boat will not have a problem sailing during a storm and you will make it out just fine but you will not be as comfortable or “safe” as in a full keel boat.

Your choice also has to do with the length of the boat you will buy. A very small boat will benefit from a full keel and heavy displacement in terms of seaworthiness and safety. However, a small boat with these characteristics will be a slow one. If speed and time are not your concerns then maybe a full keel is a better match for you.

Like so many things in sailing, there are many tradeoffs in this particular choice, and only you can decide what’s best for you.

So, as you can understand, there not a clear winner in this competition. The answer to this question really does depend on what is the purpose of the boat’s design and your individual needs. Will you be using your boat to cruise, make passages, offshore cruising, offshore racing, coastal racing, etc? You first need to answer these questions and get a boat the checks most items on your “wish list”.

Peter is the editor of Better Sailing. He has sailed for countless hours and has maintained his own boats and sailboats for years. After years of trial and error, he decided to start this website to share the knowledge.

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What are the pros and cons of different keels?

We all sail for different reasons, in different cruising grounds and use our yachts differently, so it makes sense that there is no one-size-fits-all keel design. At Sirius, however, we like to make the perfect yacht for each individual owner. One of the ways we serve our customers is our choice of keels – at least six different options for each model. It’s one of the ways we stand out – or should that be stand up?

We offer three styles of keel: fin, twin and lifting swing keel. All of our keels excel in many ways, but every design does have drawbacks – this is not unique to Sirius, but the keel affects the way you use the boat, so it’s important to choose the right one for you.

These are the keels we currently offer:

Standard Fin (310 DS, 35 DS, 40 DS) Performance Fin (310 DS, 35 DS, 40 DS) Medium Fin (310 DS, 35 DS, 40 DS) Shallow Fin (310 DS) Shallow Twin (310 DS, 35 DS, 40 DS) Performance Twin (35 DS, 40 DS) Lifting Swing Keel (310 DS, 35 DS, 40 DS)

Does the choice of keel compromise ocean capability?

For Sirius yachts, absolutely not. It’s important to realise that choosing one keel style over the other does not affect the yacht’s righting moment or compromise its ocean-going capabilities at all!

Whichever keel you choose, deep or shallow, twin or fin, they all have the same stability. This is achieved by putting more weight in the bulbs of the shallower keels as the shorter lever can be balanced with higher weight. Most of the blue water cruising and circumnavigations in Sirius Yachts have been made with twin-keel or reduced/shallow fin keel yachts.

Does keel choice affect performance?

As our shallow keels are heavier the weight dampens the yachts’ motion at sea, but as a downside, you have more weight to move with sails or engine. Once you’re moving there isn’t a difference but when tacking or gybing, or when not steered well, you will lose a bit in sailing performance. The shallower draught yachts also lose a few degrees to windward compared to their deeper keeled sisters, but they are still good all-round performers. Our customers with racing backgrounds always try to go for a keel as deep and light as their sailing area permits, either with a single or twin keel.

Pros and cons of fin keels

The standard keel on our yachts is a fin keel. Most sailing boats today use a fin keel because it gives a good all-round performance on all points of sail. By keeping the ballast lower it gives the most comfortable motion. The main downsides are that the draught (the depth of water required to stay afloat) is the greatest, and it’s very important to avoid running aground on a falling tide. Fin keel boats cannot dry out without additional support, either from a harbour wall or by fitting a pair of beaching legs. Some fin keel yachts are not built strongly enough to stand on their keels when out of the water, so they can’t dry out alongside a harbour wall and they need to be kept in a special cradle when stored ashore to avoid the risk of the hull deforming under its own weight. By contrast, all Sirius yachts can stand on their keels for any length of time with no problem at all.

We offer four types of fin keel. The standard fin is available on the 310 DS, 35 DS and 40 DS and is fully cast-iron. It offers the best value, good performance, and excellent responsiveness. It is the deepest of our fixed-keel options, so if you want less draught you may want to look at our other fin keels.

We also offer a performance fin keel for all our models. This uses a cast iron fin with a lead bulb at the tip (bottom). The structural strength of cast iron means the fin is the slimmest profile, but lead is denser than iron so the same volume of lead will weigh around 1.4 times more than cast iron, giving more righting moment. The heavier, softer lead down low has less volume in the bulb so achieves a slimmer profile with less drag and therefore better performance.

A lead bulb is also safer if it hits something. Lead can absorb 60% of the energy in flexing and deformation so that only 40% of the force will be transferred to the laminated structure of the keel reinforcement. A lead bulb is very forgiving and easy to reshape and will not start to rust where the coating is damaged. We can use less volume of lead than iron, and achieve better stability than a wholly cast-iron keel. We can also reduce the depth of the keel and retain excellent stability. However, lead is more expensive than cast iron and the bulb must be attached very securely to the iron fin, so this option does cost more.

If you want less draught, we also offer a medium fin. This reduces the draught of the 310 DS and 35 DS by around 40cm/1ft 4in and 55cm/1ft 9in on the 40 DS. Like the performance fin, it uses a cast iron fin with a lead bulb. To retain the keel’s grip in the water it has to have a longer chord (the distance from fore to aft). While this gives the boat better directional stability, it does make her a little less responsive and a little slower to manoeuvre.

On our 310 DS, we offer a shallow fin option – a special version for very shallow cruising grounds. This fin keel offers the least draught of any of our fixed keel options at 1.15m/3ft 9in and draws 10cm/4in less than the twin keel version. The keel has a significantly longer chord (2.24m/7ft 4in compared to 0.7m/2ft 3in of the standard keel) so she has the reassuring directional stability of a long-keeled yacht but with better manoeuvrability.

Pros and cons of twin keels

Our twin keels are the most popular option. About 70-80% of all Sirius Yachts are delivered with them – and on the 40 DS it’s 90%. Some folk still believe there is a big performance penalty with twin keels. In the past this used to be true but it’s no longer the case with modern twin keel designs, from Sirius at least. We have conducted many two-boat comparison tests, often battling for hours, by ourselves, with owners, and for sailing magazines and we have found that there may only be one or two boat lengths of difference at the end of a long windward leg, if at all. At the end of many of these comparison tests, the crews could not point out which of the boats had the twin keel.

If you cruise tidal areas, twin keels will reward you time and time again. Not only do they give you a shallower draught than the typical fin keel, they also give you the ability to dry the yacht out, whether that’s for a motion-free night’s sleep, to explore cruising grounds others cannot reach, or just for cheaper mooring and maintenance costs.

We offer two styles of twin keels; performance and shallow draught. Both options have a cast iron fin with a lead bulb. The performance keels have a deeper draught and a thinner chord so they act and feel a bit livelier when sailing and manoeuvring. The shorter keels have a longer chord, but give you the ability to navigate shallower areas. Like all keel designs, twin keels do have some downsides. They are more expensive than fin keels, and when you’re sailing fast in choppy seas at a steep angle of heel, you can occasionally get a slapping sound when an air pocket is caught and pressed out under the windward fin. Lastly, we’ve yet to meet an owner who enjoys antifouling between the keels. Thankfully it only has to be done once a year and with twin keels you might get away with doing it less frequently. A twin keel yacht can be kept on a drying mooring, where fouling is reduced because the hull spends more time out of the water. And when you’re off cruising it’s easy to give the bottom a quick scrub while the yacht is dried out.

Our yachts will happily sit on their keels on a hard surface, like a drying grid, or for winter storage but on softer surfaces we use the rudder for additional support. The rudders on our twin keel yachts are specially reinforced for this: we use a Delrin sheave to take the weight of the hull and the tip of the rudder has a wide, foil-like foot to spread the weight.

A lifting swing keel

We are one of a few manufacturers to offer a lifting swing keel. There’s a lot of confusion with the term ‘lifting keel’, it seems to encompass all yachts that have centreboards, variable draught, lift-keels or swing keels. To us, a lifting keel boat should have all the ballasted weight of the boat in the keel, and that keel needs to be retracted into the hull.

Technically, a lifting keel is a keel that can be lifted or lowered and gives the boat the ability to dry out when the tide goes out. A lift-keel is a ballasted keel that raises and lowers vertically. A swing keel has a ballasted fin that has a single pivot point and the keel swings up into the boat. There are other variants of design, for example some have a lifting keel to reduce the draught of the vessel but they cannot dry out on it, others have a ballasted keel and ballasted grounding plate. All these examples have a keel that does two things: keep the boat upright and stop her sliding sideways. Our swing keel is designed with a NACA profile to give the most efficient performance.

Centreboard yachts have a centreplate to provide grip in the water and reduce leeway. The plate may carry only 15-20% of the ballast but the rest of the yacht’s ballast is within the hull and/or in the grounding plate. This is called an “integral keel” and is more common as it’s less complicated to build. The lower a yacht’s ballast is located, the better her stability, the more comfortable her motion and the better she stands up to her sail area. The most efficient place for the ballast is as low down on the deepest keel possible – this is why race boats have deep skinny keels with large torpedo-shaped bulbs on the bottom, but they don’t make practical cruising sailboats.

Our keel designs have more weight in the tip (bottom) – using a bulb on the fin and twin keel design and flaring the lower sections on our lifting swing keel yachts. You don’t have this with centreboard and integral keel yachts.

It might be surprising, but a lot of owners come to us thinking that a lifting swing keel is the best option for them. Sometimes it is, but about 98% of customers who approach us because we offer swing keels end up sailing away on a twin-keel Sirius.

The downsides of a lifting keel

A lifting swing keel does give you more cruising options. It will lift should you run into something and, of course, it gives you the shallowest draught. But that difference is only 40-50cm (1ft 4in to 1ft 8in) less draught than our shallow twin keel option. The lifting keel increases the complexity of the build and the final cost of the yacht; it also sometimes limits the internal layout and engine drive options, and you need to have twin rudders too. Twin rudders make the boat less manoeuvrable in a marina – you can opt for a third central rudder which does improve the handling, but again comes at an extra cost.

On the lifting swing keel, 40 and 310 owners are restricted to the use of a shaft drive, which is less efficient and you have to accept a bit more noise and vibration. When drying out, the drive is more vulnerable to damage, whereas it’s totally clear when taking the ground on twin keels. With twin keels, you also do not have to worry about something sticking out of the beach or stones lying around because the hull is high above the ground. With the hull up high, you do not have to dig a hole in the sand and slide down on your stomach to check or change your anodes as you would on a swing keel.

Sailors who are attracted to the idea of a lifting swing keel should carefully consider the pros and cons to compromise the least. When owners understand the repercussions of choosing a lifting keel yacht, many of them feel it restricts their options too much. They could have a lifting keel or they can sail with twin keels, dry out, have better close-quarters handling and save money in the process. Unless you need the shallowest possible draught – 0.75m (2ft 5in) on the 310 DS, 0.9m (2ft 11in) on the 35 DS or 0.95m (3ft 1in) on the 40 DS – a twin keel might well be a better option.

How are the keels attached?

The design of the keel is important but the way they are attached is just as important, if not more so. All of our fixed keels are through-bolted. Every keel has a wide flange at the root (top) of the keel and the flange sits into a reinforced recess in the hull. The flange and the recess work together to spread the loads of the keel/s into the yacht’s hull. The keels are bonded and bolted to the hull. We use up to twelve 20mm and 24mm bolts (per keel) and these go through rolled stainless steel backing plates inside the hull to spread the bolt loads evenly into the fully laminated keel grid which goes all the way up to the chainplates and also carries the mast support.

For our lifting swing keel, we laminate a substantial keel box as part of the hull to accept the keel and the hydraulic mechanism needed to retract the keel into the hull. Unlike most other boatbuilders we don’t use a grounding plate to take the weight of the yacht, our yachts sit on the length of the leading edge of the keel. Integral keels with the majority of the ballast in the grounding plates move the ballast (weight) from low down in the keel to inside the hull. This negatively affects the stability as the more weight you have lower down, the better.

We also don’t like grounding plates because they bring the hull in contact with the ground. By leaving 10-15 cm (4-6in) of the keel out of the hull when it’s retracted, most of the time the hull is kept clear of the beach and anything that could damage it.

The problem with too much form stability

With only 15-12% of their ballast in the centreboard, most lifting-keel yachts cannot rely on keel weight for stability so their hulls need to be designed with extra form stability instead. This means the hull sections have to be much wider and flatter. A flat-bottomed hull is not what you want for a comfortable ocean cruising yacht; it isn’t sea-kindly or easy to steer in waves and gusty winds conditions. We don’t make that compromise at Sirius. With all the ballast in the swinging part of our swing keel design, we can use the same seaworthy, ocean-capable hull shape designed for our yachts with fixed keels.

If you don’t know which keel would be best for your Sirius, contact us to discuss the type of sailing you intend to do, where you want to sail and what your cruising aspirations are.

General Manager – Torsten Schmidt SIRIUS-WERFT GmbH Ascheberger Straße 68 24306 Plön/Holstein

Fax: 0049 – 4522 – 744 61-29

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Boat Keels & Fins: 7 Types Explained (For Beginners)

A keel is basically a structural component of a boat or ship which looks like a fin that extends at the bottom of a boat on the center-line.

A keel of the boat is usually the first component that is constructed while building a boat. The main purpose of a keel is to offer both strength and balance to a ship or boat while it is in the water.

These keels are available in different designs, as explained below:

Table of Contents

7 Types of Boat Keels Explained

Keels may be found in six varying designs, giving rise to six keel types.

They include:

• Bilge keels
• Centerboard keels
• Canting keels 

1) Full Keels

This particular keel by design covers at least half of the boat´s length.

It contains a forward edge that bends upwards, while its aft edge usually links to a rudder. This type of keel has a key advantage of providing directional stability as well as relatively safe and strong grounding of the boat or ship.

When referring to safe grounding, the full keel is safer if the boat gets to lie on hardened ground.

The full keel offers a stable and strong balancing surface for the hull whether the boat is along the coast or while traveling.

A boat or ship which is made with a full keel rides smoothly while traveling in the water, providing great directional stability. For instance, if the full keelboat is well balanced, it enables a boat to stay in the compass direction with the keel keeping the boat in a steady direction.

A full keel design is the traditional style of older wooden boats and many newer boats.  It has many years of experience that provides a comfortable and safe boat. 

2) Fin Keels

This type of keel has a length that is less than half of the hull length. It is designed with a flat shape that is sharp-pointed at its trailing edge and resembles a shark’s fin. This type of keel is very fast , it contains less wetted surface as compared to full keels, and it also has a deeper draft than the others.

Often, the deeper the fin keel´s draft is, the better it makes a ship or boat sail.

When it comes to speed and racing, as well as performance, the fin keel is unbeatable.

3) Bulb Keels

This particular keel is often referred to as a shoal draft fin keel. Typically, a deep fin keel is made shorter and then connected with a torpedo-like bulb made from lead material at the bottom of the keel.

It is specially designed to be shallow to allow sailing or cruising within the Bahamas or the Chesapeake Bay as well as other areas with shoal water depths.

However, this design does not significantly compromise the boat´s performance since they have been used on older racing sailboats.  

If you are planning to sail over shoal waters, a bulb keel may be appropriate.  Sometimes, they are not as shallow as other special full keelboats, however.

4) Wing Keels

The Wing Keel may be used as an alternative when sailing in shoal waters.

This does not use one bulb at the bottom of the keel; instead, it makes use of two plates that are attached laterally at the bottom of the fin keel.

This type is considered by some to be better when it comes to performance as compared to bulb keels since it minimizes tip vortex turbulence while sailing. Its draft is usually less.

Additionally, since the two sides are designed in a manner that they offset each other, as the boat heels while sailing, the lateral resistance is not reduced as much as with straight or bulb keels.

However, this type of keel is hard to free in case the boat gets stuck into the muck. Their wings usually go deep and grip onto the bottom of the ground, making it difficult to release once it gets stuck.

Some of the advantages of a wing keel include:

• Minimized draught
• deeper center of gravity, which implies they have better righting moments
• re-engineered water flow above the keel foot implying that they have high efficiency and results in better sailing characteristics.

On the other hand, its disadvantages include:

• It can be more difficult to free if the boat goes aground
• this type of keel is likely to collect objects such as lobster pots as it sails
• and weed may grow at the bottom of the wings, which can become hard to remove.

5) Bilge Keels

These double bilge keel makes a boat stay upright in case of a dried out low tide.

This design results in a shallower draught as compared to fin keels. This feature makes it appropriate for sailing in shallow waters along the coastlines.

However, this type of keel does not perform as well as a single keel and is therefore used for sailing instead of racing.

6) Centerboard Keels

This is yet another alternative that may be used in shoal waters.

The centerboard keel contains a base keel, which has an internal centerboard that rotates downward to create a deeper keel when sailing.

If the waters are deep, the sailor gets better performance with the centerboard down. If you are sailing in shoal waters, you should sail with the centerboard upwards.

This feature is important as it helps to provide the boat with a performance similar to a deep keel and yet to offer improved maneuverability in shoal waters.

However, the main disadvantage of the Centerboard keel is maintenance. It is difficult and problematic when it develops mechanical issues.

7) Canting Keels

This type of keel is the most unique when it comes to performance.

It is connected onto a special (strong) hinge, and as the boat or ship heels, the crew uses hydraulics to move the keel in the windward direction.

This process of moving the keel in a different direction from your heading direction makes it possible to maximize the lateral force and the righting force, to sail faster.

The main challenging posed by this keel is maintenance due to the complex design of the canting keel.  It is usually only found in specialized racing boats.

It has a promising future when it comes to racing, but it is not recommended too often because of its complicated operations.

Common Problems With Boat Keel and Fins

First, fins and keels are not protected from potential external impacts. By their design, they are long components with lever-like arms.

Therefore, if an underwater object was to be hit, like a sunken piece of log or even the sea bed, the force that would result is likely to be multiplied before being re-transmitted onto the entire boat over the keel area.

Therefore, the small surface is likely to encounter excess loads, which may result in cracks.

For instance, on the Chesapeake Bay, the majority of the creeks range from 4.5 -5 feet downwards. Boats and small ships that attempt to get too close to shore may often get grounded at some point. The moment grounding happens, the force which results and exerts pressure onto the keel is strong enough to generate cracks on the keel or along the hull.

The cracks are only physical indications of the damage caused.

For instance, the bolts which are connecting the keel and the hull at the bottom of the bilge may be frequently wet, resulting in bolts rusting and getting corroded.

When this happens, the forces together with rusted bolts will result in the keel falling off. This is dangerous and can cause severe accidents.

When the keel is removed or damaged, and the keel bolts develop holes, it allows water to flow into the hull. If the holes remain in that condition for a while, this may cause the boat to sink as a result of the incoming water.

Also, when the keel has been compromised in some way, the ballast or righting weight, which helps to counter the sails, is eliminated. In this case, if strong wind heels over your boat, it may result in the boat capsizing!

To make it worse, after the ship has capsized, you will not be able to right it since the ballast will not be there. Therefore, when a keel is destroyed, it makes the sailing horrible!

Finally, if you want to sail a boat with a fin and keel, it is recommended to avoid sailing through shallow waters. In case your boat gets grounded, the underwater appendages may be destroyed, and repairing such elements is very expensive and time-consuming.

You should take a fin keelboat or ship as a deep water machine! In deep waters, it glides over and through the water waves efficiently and easily.

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Practical Boat Owner

• Digital edition

Keel types and how they affect performance

• Peter Poland
• June 19, 2023

Peter Poland looks at the history of keel design and how the different types affect performance

The Twister is a well-proven example of a generation of production yachts with ‘cutaway’ full keels and keel-hung rudders. Credit: Graham Snook/Yachting Monthly

Having been a boatbuilder for around 30 years until the very early ‘noughties’, I’ve already witnessed – and even taken part in – a lot of changes in the world of yacht design and building.

Yacht design originally evolved as traditional workboats developed into leisure craft.

In his History of Yachting , Douglas Phillips-Birt writes that the Dutch, who gave the name ‘yacht’ to the world, were probably the first to use commercial craft for pleasure in the 16th century.

They created the first yacht harbour in Amsterdam in the 17th century.

When the schooner America visited the UK in 1851 and raced around the Isle of Wight, this led to the America’s Cup and the resulting merry-go-round of race-yacht design that continues to this day.

The Jeanneau Sun Odyssey 35 offers three different fin keel configurations with different draughts plus a lifting keel version with a centreplate housed in a shallow winged keel stub. Credit: David Harding

The creation of what is now the Royal Yachting Association ( RYA ) in 1875 led to the introduction of handicap rules, establishing the sport in Britain.

These rating rules – and their numerous successors down the ages – have helped determine the evolution of yacht design and keel shapes.

Many early yachts were closely based on workboats, commercial cargo carriers or even privateers and naval vessels.

Initially, the ballast was carried in a long keel and the bilges .

New racing rules of the day taught designers to seek and tweak performance-enhancing features.

Maybe racing did not always improve the breed, but it certainly kept it moving ahead.

Artwork inspired by Ted Brewer’s illustration of keel types (excluding centreplate or lifting keels)

The late, great designer David Thomas believed that fishing boats, pilot cutters and oyster smacks had a large influence on the sport of sailing.

Each type of workboat was built to fulfil a specific purpose. And many had to be sailed short-handed while carrying heavy cargoes.

So they needed to combine form and function, sail well and be able to cope with heavy weather.

Proof of the versatility of working boat designs was provided by Peter Pye and his wife, Anne.

They bought a 30ft Polperro gaff-rigged fishing boat (built by Ferris of Looe in 1896) for £25 in the 1930s.

Having converted her to a sea-going cutter, and renamed her Moonraker of Fowey , they sailed the world for 20 years.

It proves how the simplest working boat design can cross oceans and fulfil dreams.

Racing influence on keel types and design

Most early yacht designs were schooners, but during the latter half of the 19th century the gaff cutter rig started to dominate the scene.

Many notable yachts were built at that time and the most important racing design was probably the yawl Jullanar (1875).

Designed and built by the agricultural engineer EH Bentall, she had, in his own words, “the longest waterline, the smallest frictional surface, and the shortest keel”.

She proved to be extremely fast and in her first season won every race she entered. Jullanar became the forerunner of such famous designs as GL Watson’s Thistle (1887), Britannia (1893), and Valkyrie II and Valkyrie III , both of which challenged for the America’s Cup during the 1890s.

Compare the She 36’s graceful overhangs with the vertical stems and sterns of most modern cruiser/racers

In the USA, Nat Herreshoff experimented with hull forms for racing yachts and produced the ground-breaking Gloriana in 1890.

She was a small boat for the times, with a waterline length of 46ft. Her hull form was very different to anything yet seen in the USA.

With long overhangs at bow and stern, her forefoot was so cut away that the entry at the bow produced a near-straight line from the stem to the keel.

It was a revolutionary design, and nothing at the time could touch her on the racecourse.

Many French models, such as this Beneteau, have opted for substantial pivoting keels. Credit: Peter Poland

Herreshoff wrote: “Above the waterline everything on Gloriana was pared down in size and weight… and every ounce of this saving in weight was put into the outside lead.”

Early English rating rules produced the ‘plank-on-edge’ yacht, where the beam became narrower and the draught got deeper.

New rating rules were then adopted to discourage this extreme type and eventually the Universal Rule was introduced in the USA and the International Rule – which produced the International Metre Classes – took over in Europe.

Yet again, racing rules proved to be a major influence on design development.

By the start of the 20th century the big, long-keeled racing yachts like the J Class attracted a lot of public attention, but after World War II everything changed. Yachts built to the Universal Rule fell from favour.

The age of the racing dinghy arrived and the ocean racer became the performance yacht of the future.

To new extremes

A 300-mile race from New York to Marblehead saw the start of offshore racing and the first Bermuda race was run in 1906.

The British were slower to compete offshore, but in 1925 seven yachts took up the challenge to race round the Fastnet Rock, starting from the Isle of Wight and finishing at Plymouth.

EG Martin’s French gaff-rigged pilot cutter Jolie Brise won the race and the Ocean Racing Club was formed.

In 1931 this became the Royal Ocean Racing Club (RORC), which remains the governing body of offshore racing in Britain.

The ‘cutaway’ modified full keel was famously used by Olin Stevens on his mighty Dorade. Credit: Christopher Ison/Alamy

The early competitors in RORC races were long-keeled cruising boats, many of them gaff rigged and designed for comfort and speed.

But everything changed in 1931 when the young American Olin Stephens designed and then sailed his family’s 52ft yawl Dorade across the Atlantic to compete in that year’s Fastnet race.

She won with ease. Then she did it again in 1933, having first won the Transatlantic ‘feeder’ race.

At 52ft LOA, with sharp ends and 10ft 3in beam, some said Dorade looked like an overgrown yawl rigged 6-metre. But her triple-spreader main mast was revolutionary. As were her cutaway forefoot, lightweight construction, deep ballast and 7ft 7in draught.

Dorade took the long keel format to new extremes.

In the USA, the Cruising Club of America (CCA), founded in 1922, played much the same role as the RORC did in Britain.

It introduced its own rating rule which influenced the evolution of yacht design in the USA.

The Elan 333. Both the deep (1.9m) and shallow (1.5m) draught models feature an elegantly faired bulb keel and spade rudder. Credit: Peter Poland

Beam was treated more leniently under the CCA rule, so wider American designs later offered more space for accommodation and a bit more inherent form stability than RORC-rule inspired yachts.

Many famous designers of long-keel racing yachts at this time developed their skills at the yachtbuilding firms they ran, such as William Fife II (1821–1902), his son William III (1857–1944), Charles E Nicholson (1868–1954) of Camper & Nicholsons and Nat Herreshoff of Bristol, Rhode Island.

Around the same time several British yacht designers made their names, including George L Watson (1851–1904) who set up one of the earliest Design Offices and Alfred Mylne (1872–1951), who designed several successful International Metre Class yachts.

Norwegian designers Colin Archer (1832–1921) and Johan Anker (1871–1940) also joined the party.

Continues below…

Boat hull design: how it impacts performance

Peter Poland explains how boat hull design has evolved over the years and how it affects boat handling and accommodation

Sail boat rigs: the pros and cons of each popular design

Peter Poland looks at the history of popular rig designs and how the different types affect boat performance

Improve performance by understanding boat design

Øyvind Bordal explains how form stability, LOA, LWL, speed tables and polar diagrams can help you choose the right boat…

Coming of age: the 1970s yacht designs that have stood the test of time

Sailing in the 1970s was characterised by innovation, enthusiasm, mass participation and home boatbuilding. Rupert Holmes reports

In 1873 Archer designed the first long keel Norwegian yacht, but his real interest was work boats – pilot boats, fishing craft, and sailing lifeboats – some of which were later converted into cruising yachts.

Erling Tambs’s Teddy was a classic Colin Archer long keel canoe-stern design in which he wandered the globe with his young wife and family.

He proved the seaworthiness of Archer’s yachts, as well as their speed, by winning the 1932 Trans-Tasman yacht race.

Fellow Norwegian Johan Anker – a one-time pupil of Nat Herreshoff – became equally famous, thanks to his Dragon-class design that still races today.

As a new generation of designers arrived on the scene in the 1930s, hull tank testing became more sophisticated.

Long keel designs became as much a science as an art.

The leader of this new wave of designers, Olin J Stephens, had been a junior assistant to Starling Burgess who designed race-winning J Class yachts, including the iconic Ranger .

Tank testing was then in its infancy but the USA was ahead of the game and Stephens stored away everything that he learned. He enjoyed a head start over his contemporaries.

Keel types: Fin keels

Between the 1930s and the 1980s more fin keel designs began to arrive on the scene and his firm Sparkman & Stephens produced many of the world’s top ocean racers.

He also designed America’s Cup 12-Metres that defended the cup up to 1983 until Ben Lexcen’s winged keel shook the sailing world.

Many S&S fin keel and skeg production boats – such as the Swan 36 (1967), 37, 40, 43, 48, 53 and 65, She 31 (1969) and 36 and S&S 34 (1968) – still win yacht races and are much sought after as classics.

The S&S 34 has several circumnavigations to its name. Stephens, of course, had his rivals.

Among these was the Englishman Jack Laurent Giles, whose light displacement race-winner Myth of Malham had one of the shortest ‘long keels’ of all time.

(L-R) A Sigma 38 designed by David Thomas and Gulvain (1949) by Jack Giles as a development of his Fastnet-winning Myth of Malham have very different keel types. Credit: Peter Poland

The Dutchman EG Van de Stadt designed the Pioneer 9 (1959) which was one of the first GRP fin keel and spade rudder racers.

Towards the end of his career, Olin Stephens also came up against Dick Carter, Doug Peterson, German Frers and the Kiwis Ron Holland and Bruce Farr.

The development of new shaped keels went hand in hand with this rapid evolution in yacht design.

The full keel, as still found on motor-sailers such as the Fisher range, gave way to the ‘cutaway’ modified full keel as famously used by Olin Stephens on his mighty Dorade , designed back in the late 1920s.

She still wins ‘classic’ yacht races in the USA. American designer Ted Brewer wrote in ‘ GoodOldBoat ’ that Dorade’s offshore racing successes proved that the full keel is not essential for seaworthiness.

The Nicholson 32’s modified ‘cutaway’ long keel results in excellent performance and handling. Credit: Genevieve Leaper

As a result of its improved performance and handling, the modified ‘cutaway’ long keel caught on quickly and became the standard for around 35 years.

This keel type is found on numerous popular designs such as the Nicholson 32 , 26 and 36, Twister 28 and many Nordic Folkboat derivations.

The modified full keel format had a cutaway profile, giving good handling and directional stability while having less wetted surface than the full keel designs.

These yachts can perform well in all conditions and have a comfortable motion.

Even though they are generally of heavier displacement than fin keelers, they are not much slower in light airs , despite their added wetted surface area.

Their main drawback is a wide turning circle ahead and reluctance to steer astern when under motor.

Keel types: Increased stability

The modified full keel was subsequently cut away more and more for bluewater and inshore racers in an attempt to reduce wetted area until, finally, some designers took it to extremes.

As a result, much-reduced directional stability produced craft that were difficult to steer in breezy conditions, broaching regularly.

Whereupon the fin keel and skeg-hung rudder took over, reinstating increased directional stability, improving windward ability, reducing drag and restoring – when under power – control astern and on slow turns.

This fin and skeg format was later followed by the NACA sectioned fin keel with a separate spade rudder .

Soon, many performance cruisers followed this race-boat trend.

The Hanse 430 has a spade rudder and bulbed keel (draught 2.16m or 1.79m shoal draught. Credit: Peter Poland

Many builders now also offer shoal draught fin keel options and shallower twin rudders.

Some, such as Hanse, incorporate L- or even T-shaped bulbs on some Hanses and Dehlers at the base of finely shaped cast iron fins.

A new international competition had encouraged the initial development of modern fin keel yacht designs.

The revamped One Ton Cup was launched in 1965 for yachts on fixed handicap ratings (typically around 37ft long).

This spawned later fixed-rating championships for Quarter Tonners (around 24ft), Half Tonners (around 30 ft), Three-Quarter Tonners (around 33ft), and finally Mini-Tonners (around 21ft).

All these yachts were eventually handicapped under the International Offshore Rule (IOR) that replaced the old RORC and CCA rules.

The revamped One Ton Cup helped encourage the developed of modern fin keel designs. Credit: Getty

Countless production fin keel cruisers designed and built in the 1970’s to 1990’s boom years were loosely based on successful IOR racers that shone in the ‘Ton Cup’ classes.

The IOR handicap system’s major drawback was its Centre of Gravity Factor (CGF) that discouraged stiff yachts.

Once the international IRC rule replaced the IOR, more thought was given to increasing stability by putting extra weight in a bulb at the base of the keel.

GRP production boats followed suit. The keel foil’s chord needed to be wide enough to give good lateral resistance (to stop leeway), yet not be so wide as to add unnecessary drag.

Exaggeratedly thin foils are not suited to cruising yachts because they can be tricky upwind.

Tracking is not their forte and they can stall out. A bonus was an easier ride downwind thanks to wider sterns.

Keel Types: Lead or iron?

And then there is lead. Almost every production cruiser has a cast iron keel for one simple reason; it is much cheaper than lead. But it’s not as good.

Not only does it rust; it is ‘bigger’ for the same given weight. A cubic metre of iron weighs around 7,000kg, while the same cubic metre of lead weighs around 11,300kg.

An iron keel displaces far more water (so has more drag) than the same lead weight. We had always put iron keels under our Hunters – as did our competitors.

But when we came to build the Van de Stadt HB31 cruiser-racer, designer Cees van Tongeren said “No. We use lead.” “Why?” I asked. Cees replied: “If we use iron, the keel displaces more, so the boat sails worse.”

Rustler 36 long keel’s cutaway forefoot delivers responsiveness and manoeuvrability – a reason the design is so popular in the Golden Globe Race. Credit: Beniot Stichelbaut/GGR/PPL

Which explains why top-flight race boats have lead keels – or at the very least composite keels with a lead bulb or base bolted to an iron upper foil, thus lowering the centre of gravity (CG).

Some modern production cruiser-racers offer high-performance lead or lead/iron composite keels – but at a price.

Many Danish X-Yacht and Elan race-boat models, for example, have a lead bulb on the base of an iron NACA section fin.

Rob Humphreys, current designer of the popular Elan and Oyster ranges, said: “The T-keel is good if you have sufficient draught available. If not, the fin element has too short a span to do its job. This is because the T-bulb doesn’t contribute as usefully to side force as a ‘filleted L-bulb.’

“I developed and tested this shape (a blended-in projection off the back of the main fin) for the maxi race boat Rothmans in 1988/9, and have since used it on the Oysters and Elan Impressions. The ‘filleted’ keel we tested for Rothmans had slightly more drag dead downwind (more wetted area) but was significantly better when any side-force occurred; and side-force goes hand-in-hand with heel angle – which is most of the time! When the model spec allows for reasonable draught, the keel option with the lowest centre of gravity will invariably be a T-keel, with a longer bulb giving the greatest scope for a slender ballast package. An L-keel is a compromise and doesn’t suffer from the risk of snagging lines, mooring warps, and nets. [many modern production cruisers have 100% cast iron L- or T-shaped keels]. A lead bulb is preferable to a cast iron keel in terms of volume and density, but it costs more. However, a lead T-keel in a production environment will almost certainly use a cast iron or SG Iron fin, which may rust.”

The Mystery 35, designed by Stephen Jones and built by Cornish Crabbers, has a lead fin keel. Photo: Michael Austen/Alamy

Rustler Yachts also uses lead instead of iron for their keels.

The Rustler 36 long keel (designed by Holman and Pye and winner of the 2018 Golden Globe Race) has a cutaway forefoot to improve responsiveness and manoeuvrability.

The long keel creates more drag but, as with the Rustler 24, the cutaway forefoot makes the 36 more nimble than a full long keel boat, which are more difficult to manoeuvre in reverse under power.

The rest of Rustler’s offshore range – the Rustler 37, 42, 44 and 57 – designed by Stephen Jones – have lead fin keels.

As does his Mystery 35 built by Cornish Crabbers.

These offer an excellent combination of directional stability, performance and lateral stability. The yachts track well, are comfortable in choppy seas, and have good manoeuvrability, all without the flightiness of shorter chord fin keels found on many production family cruisers.

A digital future

Influential designer David Thomas said: “When I started designing, I integrated sharp leading edges to the keel; until someone told me a radius was better. Then we were all taught that an elliptical shape was better still. With the advent of computers, designers could better visualise the end-product; and clever ‘faring programs’ speeded this up.”

So where next? A combination of lighter and stronger materials, rapidly developing computer programs, a desire for maximum interior volume and low costs has led us to today’s production yacht.

Twin rudders improve the handling of broad-sterned yachts when heeled.

The IRC rating rule permits low CG keels, wider beam and near-vertical bows and sterns.

And designers now have an array of new computer tools at their disposal. But maybe there’s still that element of black magic?

As David Thomas so succinctly said: “You can design a yacht 95% right, but the last 5% can be down to luck.”

Keel types : the pros and cons

Full length keel

The Fisher 31 and many motor-sailers have long keels. Credit: Peter Poland

Pros: Directional stability. Heavy displacement leading to comfort at sea.

Cons: Poor windward performance. Large wetted surface leads to drag. When under power at low speeds, the turning circle is wide unless fitted with thrusters. The same applies to manoeuvring astern.

Cutaway modified long keel form with keel-hung rudder

Pros: Reduced wetted surface area leading to increased boat speed. Better windward performance and handling than full length keel. Rudder on the aft end of the keel improves self-steering ability on some designs.

Cons: Under engine, this keel form has a large turning circle ahead and poor control astern. Since the rudder is not ‘balanced’, the helm on some designs can feel quite heavy.

Fin keel with skeg-hung rudder

The skeg gives protection to the rudder. Credit: Graham Snook/Yachting Monthly

Pros: The further reduction in wetted surface area leads to more boat speed. Directional stability and close-windedness are also improved. If full depth, the skeg can protect the rudder against collision damage.

Cons: When combined with a narrow stern, this keel format can induce rolling when sailing dead downwind in heavy winds.

Fin keel with separate spade rudder

Fin keel with spade: Low wetted surface and aerofoil shapes enhance performance. Credit: Graham Snook/Yachting Monthly

Pros: The fin and spade rudder mix reduces wetted surface and gives a more sensitive helm – especially if the blade has ‘balance’ incorporated in its leading edge. Handling under power in astern is precise and the turning circle is small.

Cons: The rudder is fully exposed to collisions. There are no fittings connecting the rudder to a keel or skeg, so the rudder stock and bearings need to be very robust.

Shallow stub keel with internal centreplate.

Pros: When lowered, the plate gives good windward performance. The plate can act as an echo sounder in protected shallow water. There is normally no internal centreplate box to disrupt accommodation. With the plate raised, off-wind performance is good.

Cons: The plate lifting wire needs regular inspection and occasional replacement. Windward performance with the plate raised is poor.

Lifting or swing keel

Boats with lifting keels tend to surf earlier downwind. Credit: Graham Snook/Yachting Monthly

Pros: Shallowest draught so more cruising options; can also be moored on cheaper moorings. Surfs early downwind. Small wetted surface so can be fast.

Cons: Reduced living space due to internal keel box. With a raised keel, poor directional control. Susceptible to hull damage if grounding on hard material.

Twin or bilge keel

Bilge- or twin-keelers can take the ground on the level. Credit: Graham Snook/Yachting Monthly

Pros: Can take the ground in a level position. Modern twin-keel designs with around 15º splay, around 2º toe-in and bulbed bases perform well upwind. Good directional stability due to the fins. Modern twin keels with bulbed bases lower the centre of gravity.

Cons: Older designs do not point upwind well. Slapping sound under windward keel when at a steep angle of heel on older designs. Antifouling between the keels can be tricky. Can be more expensive than fin keels.

Wing keel: A low centre of gravity gives a good righting moment. Credit: Graham Snook/Yachting Monthly

Pros: Low centre of gravity means good righting moment. Shallow draught. Sharper windward performance.

Cons: Larger surface area means it is more likely to pick up fishing gear, like lobster pots. Difficult to move once it is grounded. And difficult to scrub keel base when dried out alongside a wall.

Enjoyed reading Keel types and how they affect performance?

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Yachting Monthly

• Digital edition

Najad 390: A pedigree cruiser for serious sailing

• Rachael Sprot
• May 19, 2022

Thirty-nine feet is often thought of as the golden size for short-handed cruising. Rachael Sprot tests the Najad 390 to find out if it hits the mark

A deep fore-foot, encapsulated long fin keel, and rudder protected by a large skeg means the Najad 390 doesn't pound to windward. Credit: Richard Langdon

Product Overview

Manufacturer:.

When I was 11 my mother put her foot down: ‘We’re moving to the coast, downsizing the house and buying a sailing boat. You’re all going to learn how to sail’, she stated, matter-of-factly.

Somewhat reluctantly, we did.

Fortunately for her, my father, Edward, whose main priorities in life are toast and marmalade, Wagner and the Great Outdoors, adopted the plan with good grace.

My sister and I were less enthused. ‘You’ll be grateful for it one day’, we were told.

She found a one-off ¾ tonner, Polar Bear .

A wooden boat with a racing pedigree, she sailed like a dream, with looks to match.

The Najad 390 is easy to handle under power and to sail shorthanded. Credit: Richard Langdon

The process of dragging a landscape gardener, stroppy children and a seasick whippet sailing gave her plenty of material to write about.

She became a regular contributor to Yachting Monthly and we spent the holidays exploring the English Channel and Biscay .

For my sister and me, this involved trying to look as busy as possible to avoid the dreaded phrase ‘I’ve got a nice little job for you girls’ – aka fender-scrubbing.

To my horror, we ended up on the front cover of Yachting Monthly one month (Nov 2001), which my geography teacher took great delight in showing to the class.

So when the opportunity came to review their second boat, Pelonia , a Najad 390, I jumped at the chance.

It’s been two decades coming but revenge is a dish best served cold.

Time for an upgrade

After almost 20 years the annual ritual of sanding and painting Polar Bear lost its appeal.

The foredeck crew had flown the (crow’s) nest and they wanted a boat with more space for living on board.

Despite a huge list of upgrades which transformed the boat for cruising, it was time to look for something more comfortable.

Miranda Delmar-Morgan was one of the first women to become a professional skipper, working on large classic yachts on the Transatlantic circuit until she met her now husband, landscape gardener Edward Sprot. Together they’ve cruised in the UK, Baltic and Biscay, and she’s trying to persuade him to set off for the Caribbean. Credit: Richard Langdon

However, as Marshall McLuhan said, first we shape our tools and thereafter they shape us.

Whether they liked it or not, Polar Bear was imprinted on my parents’ sailing sub-conscious.

If you’ve ever witnessed someone else’s boat-buying process, you’ll know it’s utterly incomprehensible from the outside.

One week it must be blue with two loos, the next red with a fin and skeg. It’s a battle between heart and head and even more complicated as a couple.

Miranda’s priorities were a good sailing pedigree and classic look and feel.

The Najad 390 will easily deliver 6 knots, and her large rudder is nicely balanced. Credit: Richard Langdon

Edward, now with his own views on the matter, wanted a decent-sized bunk, plenty of headroom and better toast and marmalade facilities.

After many months of searching, Pelonia came along (red with a skeg).

Despite being 30 years old, she was immaculate and had good ocean sailing credentials.

Her long fin keel is encapsulated, the rudder is well-protected by the skeg and a deep fore-foot means she doesn’t pound to windward.

Belts and braces

The Lloyds-approved hull is single-skin laminate so there’s no foam sandwich for water to infiltrate.

The flush decks are devinyl cell making them light and strong.

Najad’s high construction standards should reduce the risk of moisture ingress here.

Flush decks are a little old-fashioned but they’re easy to move around on and give a clean foredeck area to work on.

They allow you to lash the dinghy on the foredeck instead of towing it or adding davits.

The addition of a wind generator makes the boat more self-sufficient, and a radar tower prevents too much weight up the mast. Credit: Richard Langdon

The windlass is well protected in the anchor well and the chain locker has good access from above, so there’s no need to wrestle with a muddy anchor chain inside the boat.

The shrouds are evidence of Najad’s belts and braces approach.

With fore and aft lowers there’s plenty of support and the leads are spread across three sets of chain plates.

Another feature which gives her age away is the fact that all the lines are at the mast. This has its upsides and downsides.

It came into its own during a Yachting Monthly man overboard trial when being able to control a halyard at the mast allowed a single person to manage both the casualty and the winch.

Other scenarios where it is useful not to have to go back to the cockpit would be lifting a tender out of the water at the shrouds, or hoisting the spinnaker .

High coamings on the Najad 390 makes the cockpit secure. Credit: Richard Langdon

On the other hand, you need to leave the safety of the cockpit to adjust anything on your sails, apart from the sheets.

This is a drawback if you’re running solo watches where in certain conditions it would be inadvisable to go to the mast without the other person on deck.

There are excellent granny bars around the mast and a high grab-rail leading forwards from the cockpit though.

Combined with proper gunwales and solid teak capping, you feel surprisingly secure making the journey forwards.

The rubbing strakes with their bronze coping bars, substantial stainless steel stem band and teak deck all give her a feeling of quality.

The centre cockpit positions the mainsheet behind the helm, keeping the cockpit clear and allows you to quickly sheet out in a gust.

Granny bars at the mast make line-handling easier in heavy weather. Credit: Richard Langdon

It also means that a full cockpit tent can be fitted, greatly extending the living area in wet weather.

Like many Scandinavian boats, the Najad 390 has a fixed windscreen which gives good protection from the elements.

They weren’t sure about it in the beginning, but Miranda explained that ‘We hit a standing wave off Fair Head in Northern Ireland at 13 knots, and after the green water had subsided we were impressed to find it was still there,’ so they’re quite taken with it now.

You don’t want all the Great Outdoors indoors, after all.

The cockpit is clutter-free owing to the mast-led halyards.

There’s a generous locker on the starboard side which accommodates all the lines and cruising paraphernalia.

All lines are worked from the mast on the Najad 390. Credit: Richard Langdon

The aft deck is another excellent working (or lounging) space with plenty of room for things such as a wind generator and antennas.

The stern platform on the back includes a set of swimming steps and makes it easy to get in and out of the tender.

Below decks there’s enough mahogany to satisfy the most ardent wooden boat enthusiast – the quality of Najad joinery stands out even amongst other Scandinavian yachts.

The saloon is generous and they’ve had 10 on board for dinner.

Both saloon seats convert to double bunks by lifting up the seat-back, taking her accommodation up to eight.

There are copious lockers, which makes it easy to organise stores.

A drawback of the flush decks is that despite the hull portlights and central hatch, there’s less light in the saloon than on a yacht with a coach roof.

The saloon has a generous 6ft 2in of headroom. Credit: Richard Langdon

In warmer climes it’s not an issue, you need a respite from the sun, and in colder climes she feels warm and cosy, but she’s not as bright as a modern yacht.

There is 6ft 2in headroom though, and the saloon berths are 6ft 5in long. The v-berth forwards has plenty of space beneath for sails, and generous locker space within the cabin.

‘I’m glad they haven’t put drawers under the bunk’, said Miranda. She’s firmly of the belief that the forepeak is for the sail wardrobe and not your own.

A place for everything

The forward-facing chart table has a chart locker under the deck head which is a great feature for traditionalists.

Miranda regularly reminds us that the chart table drawers aren’t half as big as Polar Bear ’s. She employs the ‘it might just come in handy’ philosophy and never throws anything away.

The compact chart table has supplementary chart stowage under the deckhead. Credit: Richard Langdon

The heads is small but adequate and scores extra points for the wet locker which is supplied with hot air from the Eberspächer.

As with most centre cockpit yachts the galley is laid out down one side; on Pelonia , it is to port.

The space is really well laid-out with a huge fridge and plenty of room for marmalade.

Inboard of the galley is the capacious engine compartment.

Two doors on the side of the compartment swing open and lift off to give excellent access to the port and aft sides. Removing the companionway steps gives access to the front.

The cockpit sole has a ‘soft patch’ which would allow the engine to be craned straight out.

The L-shaped galley is well laid out with a fiddled worktop area. Credit: Richard Langdon

It may only be used once or twice in the boat’s lifetime, but when it is, you’ll earn endless respect from the engineer that does the job.

The only complaint is that on the starboard side it would be useful to have a hatch in the heads to give better access to the oil filter.

And now to the aft cabin. It’s nothing short of decadent.

In fact, it’s been described as ‘too big’ by the more puritanical owner, who would like more locker space for fenders.

The two halves of the double bunk are both 3ft wide, light streams through the deck hatch and there’s even a flip-up dressing table.

3ft-wide berths and plenty of light makes the aft cabin bright and airy. Credit: Richard Langdon

The only problem, and it’s a big problem, is that access to the top of the rudder stock is under the bunk.

The emergency tiller is only operable from below decks and although steering from the comfort of your bunk might sound appealing, the novelty will probably wear off.

In case of steering failure, the autopilot , rather than the emergency tiller, will be the first recourse, so it must be kept operational.

Under sail Pelonia performs well.

She’s fairly heavy for her size but with her fully-battened main and 17% sail area to displacement ratio she’s got plenty of get-up-and-go.

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She made 6 knots close-hauled with 15 knots apparent and as we bore away and the apparent wind dropped, she maintained over 6 knots on a beam and broad reach.

When the wind dropped off later in the day she made 5.3 knots close-hauled in 10 knots apparent, which is very respectable for a boat that is also heavy-weather proof and comfortable to live aboard.

A removable inner forestay for a working staysail has been added by many owners including Edward and Miranda.

The huge 150% genoa which they inherited was unwieldy and rarely fully unfurled, so they had a 120% genoa made and a working jib, bringing the headsail count to four white sails plus a storm jib.

On the helm her large rudder is nicely balanced, she’s a pleasure to sail and she handles her canvas well.

There is plenty of stowage down below. Credit: Richard Langdon

You won’t achieve the downwind speeds of a flat-bottomed modern cruiser, but she’ll keep up 6 knots whatever weather comes her way.

She tracks well on her long-ish fin keel making life easier for crew and autopilot. She’s an excellent passage-making boat.

‘We arrive much less tired than we used to on Polar Bear . We can do an 80-mile passage and don’t spend the next day recovering,’ Miranda explained.

Under power the 60HP Volvo Penta has plenty of oomph. We made 5.8 knots at 2,000RPM, and 7 knots at 2,500.

She’s certainly no angel in a marina though.

It takes quite a run-up to establish steerage in reverse, but eventually she’ll follow her rudder obediently.

She’s better at straight lines than tight circles and you can’t have it both ways.

The bow thruster helps, although at 30 years old its occasional malfunction has been the subject of some colourful Whatsapp chats!

Flush teak decks with substantial stanchions and mooring cleats mounted on the capping rails. Credit: Richard Langdon

Like all ocean sailing boats, their suitability doesn’t stop at the hull, rig and interior.

Pelonia has had endless upgrades to adapt her for long-term cruising: a new bimini, wind generator and solar panels to name a few.

Knowing the time and expense that goes into installing these, it’s worth buying a boat that’s already set-up.

Nonetheless, the Najad 390 has been a very successful compromise. But is there anything they miss about Polar Bear ? ‘The forehatch’, said Miranda, ‘ Pelonia ’s is far too small to move big sails in and out of.’

Polar Bear came with five headsails and Pelonia ’s wardrobe has almost caught up.

I tried to explain that not everyone changes their headsails around these days, they just roll them up but it was to no avail: ‘There’s nothing worse than sailing around with the wrong canvas up’, You can take the sailor out of the classic racing yacht, but you can’t take the classic racing yacht out of the sailor.

Our tools don’t just shape us, they shape the next generation of tools as well.

Expert opinion on the Najad 390

Ben Sutcliffe-Davies, Marine Surveyor and full member of the Yacht Brokers Designers & Surveyors Association (YDSA) www.bensutcliffemarine.co.uk

Ben Sutcliffe- Davies has been in the marine industry for over 40 years as a long- time boat builder, has been surveying craft for over 20 years and is a Full Member of the YDSA.

The materials used on the Najad 390 are excellent.

I’ve personally not carried out a pre-purchase survey on one but have inspected a couple for other reasons.

Pay attention to the decks. The teak decks were screwed down through the GRP deck moulding which is a core sandwich construction using a PVC-type devinyl cell as spacing material.

This was used for its reported strength and heat insulation, but keeping the yacht long-term in sub-zero temperatures will start detachment of any wet core, allowing working decks to soften.

Look at the mast step arrangement to check the condition of the core pad within the encapsulation; an easy check is looking closely at the deck step with a straight edge.

Rudders and skegs are susceptible to moisture ingress on a boat of this age and should be carefully inspected.

Having spoken to one of the Najad 390’s former builders, I’ve discovered that this model has an encapsulated keel, but there were options of having either iron or lead laid in.

The majority were reportedly filled with iron ingots and not lead. The use of a magnet is really the only way to know what is inside!

All were capped off with a mixture of sand and resin.

Over time there is a risk of moisture causing expansion of the iron ingots, especially if the craft gets an unintended grounding.

I’ve had several experiences of iron-filled keels with detachment so a proper assessment of the keel is essential.

Alternatives to the Najad 390 to consider

The cutter rig means the boat performs well to windward. Credit: Colin Work

Bowman is one of the few yards to produce sailing yachts purely for ocean passages.

The Bowman 40 was one of several iconic blue-water cruisers which has a long and successful history.

Originally designed by Laurent Giles with a long keel and transom-hung rudder, a second version from the 1980s was drawn by Chuck Paine after Bowman merged with Rival.

The model was so successful that it went on to become the Bowman 42.

Cutter-rigged, the Paine Bowman 40 had a fairly long Scheel Keel to keep draft to a minimum and give good course-keeping abilities.

However, there will be a small sacrifice in windward performance compared to the Najad 390 or Hallberg-Rassy.

The hull has a traditional, deep forefoot as you’d expect from a serious cruising yacht of this era.

There’s a skeg-hung rudder giving you more protection in case of any encounters with orca whales.

The raised coachroof and deep gunwales make the side decks feel safe and contained and the aft cockpit is deep and secure.

The Bowman 40 is built for ocean passages. Credit: Mervyn Wheatley

The mainsheet and traveller are forwards of the companionway.

Running backstays, which are a necessary part of the cutter rig, make tacking a little more laborious but offer redundancy in case of backstay failure.

Below decks the interior joinery is teak, which is a little lighter and more golden than mahogany.

It’s a luxury that you’d be unlikely to find in modern yachts as it’s prohibitively expensive and unsustainable.

The galley has the best position of all of these yachts, it’s well forwards and almost part of the saloon.

The engine is beneath the central counter, keeping weight in the middle of the boat for better seakeeping.

The payoff for the generous saloon and galley area is in the cabins.

There’s a single (on some models as it was offered as an option) and double aft cabin.

As is always the case with aft cockpit yachts the berths are tucked under the cockpit sole and feel cramped in comparison.

The master cabin is forwards with a separate heads.

Several hulls were sold and finished by owners, so the interiors vary, and some seem to have been converted to sloop rigs, which is a shame when there are so few cutters available.

It should be straightforward to convert them back.

Hallberg-Rassy 39

The Hallberg-Rassy 39 Mk1 version has a counter stern

If you put a coachroof on the Najad 390 you’d end up with something very like the Hallberg-Rassy 39.

First built in 1991 the model comes in a Mk1 and Mk 2 version, the former having a counter stern and the latter with a small sugar-scoop and bathing platform.

Over 200 hulls have been made and they’re a very popular offshore cruiser. The underwater profile is a long-ish fin keel which is bolted on rather than being encapsulated.

There’s a part skeg on the rudder and nice deep forefoot. There was a shoal draft version available which has a slightly better AVS at 125° instead of 123°.

A removable inner forestay came as standard, allowing you to set a storm jib when necessary, whilst still enabling the foredeck to be used for the tender.

Like the Najad 390, there’s a centre-cockpit and master aft cabin with a large cockpit locker on the starboard side.

Thanks to the coach-roof there’s 6ft 6in head room in the saloon. The interior joinery is mahogany, which creates a traditional feel.

For those that like them, there’s the option of two armchairs in the saloon, rather than a standard bench seat.

The galley is set up differently: it’s U-shaped and aft-facing to starboard of the companionway.

It would be secure in a seaway but has less storage and work surface compared to the Najad 390, and some people dislike the reverse orientation.

The aft cabin has a double berth to one side and single to the other, and together they take up the full width of the boat.

It’s a slightly odd configuration and perhaps a bit more storage and bit less bunkage would have been useful.

Westerly Sealord

Generous side decks make the cockpit feel secure. Credit: David Harding

At the more accessible end of the market the Westerly Sealord is a good option.

They came in a ketch or sloop rig with a centre cockpit and an aft cabin that had its own heads.

Westerly are renowned for making robust hulls, some of which have made  extraordinary voyages.

The Sealord was their largest model at the time of construction and designed as a performance cruiser.

42 Sealords were made in the mid 1980s before the back half of the boat was extended by 15in to give a bigger aft cabin, creating the better-known Oceanlord.

The hull is solid laminate and the decks are sandwich construction with PVC foam.

The bolt-on fin keel, spade rudder and lack of inner forestay for rigging a storm jib are detractions for die-hard ocean sailors.

At 20% lighter than her Scandinavian equivalents, she’ll be faster in light airs .

Originally designed with a 36HP Volvo, some models were produced with a 28HP engine which many owners upgraded.

The layout below is excellent. The saloon is smaller than the other boats in this selection but it leaves room for a generous nav station and galley.

At half a metre wider than the Najad 390, there’s also space for a twin cabin with bunk beds under the starboard side decks which doubles as the access route to the aft cabin.

The interior is teak-veneered ply with solid teak trim. Some examples need TLC and the overall feel of the boat is less luxurious.

But if it’s the thrills and not the frills you’re after then the Sealord is an excellent choice.

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Yachting World

• Digital Edition

ClubSwan 43 First Look: A Spicy and Seriously Appealing Cruiser-Racer

• Toby Hodges
• September 11, 2024

The ClubSwan 43, a contemporary multi-mode cruiser-racer is one of 2024’s most exciting launches. Toby Hodges went to the Finnish yard for the first sea trials... sort of...

Product Overview

Clubswan 43, price as reviewed:.

What does a genuine cruiser-racer look like today? Spicy and seriously appealing if we take Swan’s latest model as an example. Granted, the dark brown water surrounding the ClubSwan 43 (CS43) during this first photoshoot doesn’t quite sell it, but believe me, the lines and details of Juan Kouyoumdjian’s latest rocketship really does get the heart rate spiking. This is one slippery weapon, potentially as stunning to sail as her fiery looks promise.

And it’s rare to find a new yacht that properly fulfills a dual-purpose role. Admittedly this design is skewed more towards racing, which will likely be the focus of most owners. But like its predecessor, the CS42, it features a fitted interior for occasional fair weather cruising – the modern shape of the new boat helps provide large volumes below decks (for a race boat) in a three-cabin layout.

Swan markets the ClubSwan 43 as ‘the perfect crossover’ because it targets three briefs: one-design events, handicap regatta ratings, and sports cruising. Some readers will remember it began life on the drawing board a couple of years ago as a 41-footer. But when the ORC band limits changed, Swan changed with it, extending this to a 43 as the Finnish boatbuilders wanted to be in the middle of Cat A for this international rating system.

Sea trials from the yard – but with race sails fitted and a hiking crew this time.

“ORC is getting bigger every year so this was our focus,” Nautor’s CEO Giovanni Pomati explained as we attended the launch and first sea trials from Swan’s Pietersaari yard.

Pomati described how Swan clients love to race in Nautor’s one-design circuit but also want to compete in high-profile regattas such as the Copa del Rey or Admiral’s Cup, and have the option of then cruising with their families. But he admits this is a mighty tall order: “As Juan K says – ‘you want a pig with five legs!’”

ClubSwan 43’s design versatility

“For me the way all these different aspects between performance, interior/cruising ability, and where the boat sits in terms of its performance to rating makes it a successful and beautiful sailboat,” muses Kouyoumdjian.

The visionary Argentinian naval architect has given the ClubSwan range a formidable boost since the CS50 launched in 2016. That was followed by the CS36 , the CS125 Skorpios (both of which have foils), the CS80 My Song, and now the CS28 and this CS43 both launching this season. He says the CS43’s hull is 500-700kg lighter yet 1.5m longer than its typical competitor.

Note the tidy deck layout and angles – top ergonomics

A novel feature, designed to suit those owners optimising their boat for ORC racing, is that the keel has a pocket in the top of the bulb to adjust the ballast without changing the whole keel (see page 84). This L-shaped keel is very thin at the leading edge, a high aspect shape to provide lift going upwind, and the design team calculates this will create much less leeway than a T-keel.

Another clever addition is to be found in the rig. The standard carbon mast is heavily raked with running backstays and a contemporary square-top mainsail for optimum performance in one-design racing. However, the masthead crane can be changed out to use a pinhead mainsail and fixed backstay, which is more practical when cruising. This fitting attaches with two pins, so you don’t need to de-rig the boat and can just hoist someone aloft.

“We spent a lot of time to simplify like this to swap from one configuration to another,” says head of sports activities Federico Michetti, who spearheaded the CS43 project.

Admittedly, I find the lines very cool indeed, with the flared aft sections, reverse sheer, chamfered coachroof and modern deck angles setting off an appealing, aggressive and sporty tone.

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Good and bad surprises

Why have I harked on about the design and concept before describing what it’s like to sail? Because there’s an anti-climax looming… the first boat hadn’t quite been finished in time to give it a full test during our yard visit in June – we only managed a quick introductory sail, hence why this is only a ‘First Look’.

Ours were the very first sea trials of the first hull to launch. Although Swan had tried to finish as much of the interior as possible, it was certainly not complete (the aft cabins had no doors, the heads were unfinished and the sole boards were yet to be fitted). The bigger issue was that the sails had been held up in customs in Denmark, so our delivery sails comprised a pinhead main and a high-cut storm jib. Although I pleaded to borrow another yacht’s gennaker, the bowsprit still needed tackline fairleads and a bobstay fitting. So white Dacron sails only it was.

A joy to helm: the CS43 should slice to weather with narrow wetted surface and a keel which minimises leeway

Yet despite the equivalent of furnishing a carbon superbike with mountain bike wheels, we still had a delicious taster. We sailed in the tight confines of the channel to try and harness a confused wind as the light sea breeze began to stifle the offshores. This gave us a tricky yet fun mix of angles with winds gusting up from 8 to 17 knots.

And what a feeling this yacht gives you on the wheel – super direct and smooth! The Jefa steering linkage has a short run aft to a carbon stock and vinylester rudder, a deep, high aspect blade (to match the keel fin), which felt beautifully light and responsive.

Appetite whetter

The ClubSwan 43 proved noticeably quick to accelerate. We averaged 7+ knots upwind at 40° true in 12 knots (another half knot if you bear off 5-8°). Of course, the numbers are somewhat irrelevant with the sails we had and with no offwind options (indeed the polars suggest it should clock 8 knots in such conditions in one-design mode), but the feel and spark were very evident and pointed to genuinely potent capabilities.

Toby on the helm (with Dacron high cut jib).

While it has generous beam carried aft, look at the flare to the aft quarters: it leaves only a narrow wetted surface. It’s a slippery shape that should start planing when reaching in around 12 knots true wind. It will want a full hiking crew to establish how lethal the CS43 is upwind, but my impression is that intelligent use of crew weight, both lateral and fore and aft, could make a telling difference.

The wheel pedestals are twisted, which forces a double take at first, but proved effective as they’re at the ideal angle to grip when heeled and gain the helmsman space. The mainsheet trimmer has a comfortable space between the wheel and German-led mainsheet winch. Traveller control lines are led here to hand via camcleats on the central footbrace, although the endless line joining them can cause a tripping hazard.

The deck design and ergonomics are superb. The angles help to both give the CS43 a modern feel and work in a practical sense. For example, the chamfers on the coachroof make for a comfortable boat to sit up on the side deck or to walk on at heel, while a hiking crew will be grateful for the angled toerail join.

A compact galley but plenty of saloon and accomodation space in a smartly designed interior. Many of the panels are removable

Michetti is particularly happy with these ergonomics, especially those that help crew to feel safe at heel. The SeaDek foam decking in the cockpit is comfortable and grippy underfoot, the moulded-in non-slip decks effective, and there is a sturdy central longitudinal footbrace for crewmembers in the cockpit.

The winch layout is also well considered, particularly for racing. The coachroof winches have free spinning bases for cross-sheeting, and the runner winches are neatly set into the decks, again on an angle. The runners blocks are quite far inboard on the transom, but Michetti explains that the boom will never be eased too far with the apparent wind angles it will race at. The jib sheets lead through transverse tracks to give a very tight sheeting angle, while the running rigging runs through slanted grooves in the coachroof.

A lot of experience and forethought has gone into these details.

Keel pocket allows simple change of ballast weight

More clues to its raceboat focus include having the main and jib halyards on locks, which helps reduce mast compression, and the numbered gauges on the foam decking for the traveller. Making full use of the reverse sheer, the foredeck ramps down into a well to make the forestay attachment as low as possible.

The spacious cockpit has low backrests and short benches. In cruising mode there’s the option for a removable table and box seats to join the cockpit benches. A windlass can be fitted in the anchor locker and the bowsprit can be swapped with two bolts for a shorter version that includes twin anchor rollers.

Reverse sheer and flared aft quarters give an aggressive look

Clean styling

Below decks has a light, open feel, with good volumes and large aft cabins. Lucio Micheletti has done a good job with the minimalist interior styling and it is more cruising yacht than stripped-back raceboat. That said, the yard has gone to painstaking lengths to ensure it can be stripped without ruining the boat. Cork panels are used on the hull sides, for example, for noise insulation but they’re Velcroed-on so can be removed for racing.

There will be an option to close off the forward berth

In fact, pretty much anything that can be removable is, including the saloon table, the aft bed boards, the water tank bladders, even the headlining. This amounts to over 200kg in furniture and fittings.

The concept of stripping a luxury yacht may seem baffling but Michetti explains how competitive boats racing in ORC today all do this and are ‘bastardised’ with fake interiors and furniture. Hence it makes sense to design-in as many removable fittings as possible. For Swan’s one-design racing programme, yachts will have to have their interiors fitted. So this is a truly transformable model.

It’s also a practical wash down, wipe clean type interior, so should be able to handle spinnaker drops without ruining the finish. A string drop system can be fitted, led back to a block in the aft cabin so you can suck a kite in through the forward hatch. All deck hatch drainage is outside via neat wells on deck and it’s a deck-stepped mast, so the interior should stay dry.

Photo: Eva-Stina Kjellman

The hatch on the forward watertight bulkhead opens to access the forepeak and chain locker. There will be an option to close off the forward berth with sliding doors, and Swan was still deciding whether to add headlinings in the aft cabins (which will also have fabric wardrobes). The CS43 is built using vacuum-infused vinylester with carbon reinforcements, a high modulus carbon Axxon rig, and a carbon bowsprit.

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The ClubSwan 43 costs a whopping €820,000, yet the first three were signed before this first hull launched (the larger sister CS50 is €600,000 more and costs more to run, yet has sold nearly 30). So while this just might be one of the coolest new yachts I’ve sailed, for that exotic price it needs to be near perfect. And I can’t tell you if it is... yet. I can only say it’s got huge potential. Its pricing will render it a product for the lucky few, but that’s buying into the exclusive, unrivalled world of Swan’s regatta and one-design circuits. The Nautor badge will also carry a lot of weight in terms of aftersales value. Our sail was a mere amuse-bouche, when I’d have loved to try the full taster menu. While it was frustrating for Swan and us not to be able to sail it to its potential, I can say that there are very, very few yachts that feel this good on the wheel without even being set up properly! I eagerly await a re-run.